The changing nature of entry-level jobs: what are the consequences for employers and workers?

By Junying Wang, a student at the University of Leeds, for Abeceder Ltd.

Abstract

This dissertation investigates the evolving nature of entry-level jobs in the UK, fundamentally reshaped by pervasive digitalization, automation, and persistent labor shortages. Traditionally critical for recruitment and career development, these roles now demand new hybrid skill sets as routine tasks are automated. This shift raises entry barriers and potentially exacerbates inequalities.

The research employs a qualitative multiple-case study, utilizing semi-structured interviews with HR managers and industry experts to explore subjective experiences and interpretations. A comprehensive literature review contextualizes these findings. The study identifies how employers deploy entry-level roles, what new tasks they entail across sectors, and how technology drives these changes. It also examines the complex consequences for employers (workforce strategies) and workers (skill development, job quality).

By generating novel evidence, this study aims to provide actionable insights for Abeceder Ltd, informing client guidance on balancing business needs with sustainable workforce integration and growth in a digitalized economy.

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Background

Entry-level positions have long been considered a foundational pillar of organizations’ talent pipelines and internal labor markets, serving as a critical gateway for the recruitment, socialization, and development of new employees. Historically, these positions have provided employers with a cost-effective mechanism for building their workforce while also offering individuals a first step onto the career ladder (Grimshaw et al., 2001). However, the contemporary labor market is not static. It is undergoing profound transformation, driven primarily by the forces of digitalization and automation. These technological advances are fundamentally reshaping the nature and function of these foundational positions, altering the content of the work, the skills required, and their strategic value within organizations (Dellot and Wallace-Stephens, 2017).

1.2 Research Aim and Objectives

Against this backdrop, the overarching aim of this dissertation is to examine the changing nature of entry-level jobs within organizations in particular sectors and industries in the UK, and to critically assess the consequences of these changes for both employers and workers.

To achieve this aim, the study pursues the following specific objectives:

1.To review existing literature to explore and critically examine the changing nature of entry-level jobs, drawing on literatures around internal labour markets, recruitment and selection and careers

2.To undertake primary research with organisational stakeholders (HR managers, senior managers, as well as other relevant stakeholders (e.g. trade unions, sector/industry bodies) into: the changing nature of entry-level jobs, perceptions towards entry level jobs (their role, the job duties associated with these roles; the purpose of entry-level jobs, 

3.To explore the impact of digitalisation, technological change and automation, where relevant, on entry level jobs.

4.To examine the consequences of changes in the nature of entry level jobs for organisations and workers.

1.3 Research Questions

In alignment with the research objectives, this study seeks to answer the following specific research questions:

1.How are entry-level jobs used by employers as part of HR systems and how is this changing? 

2.What work activities and tasks do entry-level jobs now typically entail? 

3.How are entry level jobs changing in specific sectors and industries (sectoral focus to be agreed during the project)?

4.How is digitalisation, technological change and automation impacting upon entry level jobs? 

5.What are the consequences of changes to the nature of entry-level jobs for employers and workers?   

1.4 Research Significant

This dissertation makes important contributions to both academic theory and management practice. Theoretically, it complements existing internal labor markets, providing empirical evidence demonstrating their subtle impact on entry-level positions, reflecting not only task substitution but also significant task augmentation and skills convergence. It also highlights how external pressures are forcing organizations to redefine the concept of “entry level,” challenging traditional assumptions of low cost and low skills.

From a practical perspective, these findings have important implications for employers, employees, and policymakers. For Abeceder Ltd., the project’s client, this research will provide actionable insights to enhance its HR consulting business. These findings will enable Abeceder to better advise clients on developing proactive talent strategies, including flexible hiring models, robust upskilling programs, and a supportive workplace culture, which are critical to addressing persistent labor shortages and a rapidly changing career landscape. For employers, this research highlights the need to invest in continuous talent development and align HR systems with the demands of a digitally integrated workforce. For workers, the research underscores the critical need for continuous learning and skills adaptability, particularly in digital capabilities, for career resilience. For policymakers and educational institutions, the research highlights the urgent need to align vocational training and curricula with the hybrid skills needs of the modern workplace, ensuring equitable access to future-ready skills.

1.5 Research Outline

The remainder of this dissertation is structured as follows: Chapter 2 presents a comprehensive literature review, critically examining existing academic and policy debates relevant to the changing nature of entry-level jobs. Chapter 3 details the research methodology, outlining the interpretivist philosophy, qualitative design, data collection methods (semi-structured interviews), and analytical approach (thematic analysis) employed. Chapter 4 systematically presents the key findings derived from the primary research, organized by the research questions. Finally, Chapter 5 integrates these findings into a broader discussion, draws overarching conclusions, acknowledges the study’s limitations, and proposes directions for future research.

2.0 Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

Entry-level jobs have traditionally been seen as the gateway to employment within organisations and play a vital role in the internal labour market. These positions were typically low-cost recruitment mechanisms and provided employees with initial training and career development opportunities (Grimshaw et al., 2001). However, in recent years, particularly following the UK’s experience of Brexit and the Covid-19 pandemic, entry-level jobs have faced unprecedented challenges, including labour shortages, changes in the nature of the job, and the impact of automation as a result of technological advances (Forde et al., 2024; Hudgins, 2024). 

Digitisation and automation have begun to reshape the nature of entry-level work tasks, blurring the traditional boundaries between ‘low-skill’ and ‘high-skill’ jobs. Automated systems are increasingly being used to perform routine manual or cognitive tasks that were once typical of entry-level jobs (Dellot and Wallace-Stephens, 2017). Such technological change may raise the entry barriers for certain groups of workers, potentially exacerbating inequalities in employment and career development (Hornstein, Krusell and Violante, 2005). In addition, human resources management practices are evolving rapidly in response to these trends, with firms adopting new recruitment techniques, flexible working arrangements and more sophisticated staff development programmes to attract and hire scarce talent (Prasad et al., 2024). 

This literature review explores current academic and policy debates surrounding the changing nature of entry-level jobs, focusing on how technological developments and broader labour market transformations impact employers and workers alike.

2.2 Traditional Roles of Entry-Level Jobs in Internal Labor Markets

The concept of internal labour markets (ILMs) offers an insightful theoretical framework to understand the traditional function and strategic importance of entry-level jobs within organizations (Royal, 2000). Within this framework, entry-level positions serve as crucial gateways through which new workers are integrated into the organization’s labour force. These roles are designed to provide employers with a low-cost method of recruiting workers and simultaneously serve as the foundation for training, socializing, and developing employees into their future roles within the company. According to Grimshaw et al. (2001), these positions have typically acted as stepping stones, offering employees a pathway to career advancement and upward mobility within the organization. Internal labor market theory further 

emphasizes that entry-level jobs are not simply a mechanism to fill basic tasks but are also integral in transmitting company culture, values, and organizational knowledge to employees (Althauser, 1989). These jobs serve as a vital link between new recruits and the broader structure of the company, making them essential for long-term organizational stability and employee loyalty.

By strategically managing entry-level positions, companies can create internal career ladders that promote upward mobility of employees through the organisational hierarchy. This internal promotion reduces the reliance on external recruitment for highly skilled positions, thereby reducing recruitment costs and minimising the uncertainty associated with employee adaptability and mobility. This strategic approach not only enhances workforce stability and productivity but also fosters a committed and skilled employee base that supports sustained organizational growth.

2.3 Structural Changes in the UK Labour Market and Labour Shortages

Entry-level jobs have undergone significant change in recent years, driven by changes in the wider economic landscape, technological advances and social change. Recent structural shocks such as Brexit and the global COVID-19 pandemic have precipitated unprecedented labour shortages across several key sectors heavily reliant on entry-level workers, including retailing, manufacturing, warehousing, and social care (Causa et al., 2025). 

These sectors traditionally depend on a steady supply of low-skilled or semi-skilled labour, much of which has historically been met by migrant workers. However, post-Brexit immigration policy reforms have imposed tighter controls on the recruitment of foreign workers, significantly reducing the availability of this vital labour pool (Portes and Springford, 2023). This reduction has exposed vulnerabilities in the UK’s reliance on migrant labour for filling entry-level roles, leading to increased difficulties for employers in sourcing adequate workforce numbers. 

The COVID-19 pandemic has further exacerbated these challenges by disrupting the labour supply chain, altering worker preferences, and increasing occupational health risks, particularly in frontline and essential service positions (Bell, Bloom and Blundell, 2022). Many workers have reassessed job security, working conditions and career prospects, leading to increased turnover and decreased labour market participation in certain industries. Together, these factors have forced organisations to urgently rethink their recruitment strategies and redesign entry-level jobs to attract, retain and motivate workers under more constrained conditions.

In light of these changes, businesses have had to rethink how they structure and define entry-level roles. Instead of focusing on filling low-skill positions, companies are now placing a greater emphasis on skills-based hiring and job restructuring.

2.4 Impact of Digitalisation and Automation on Entry-Level Jobs

Technological advances in digitisation and automation are rapidly reshaping the nature, tasks and skill requirements of entry-level jobs across multiple industries. Automation technologies, including robotics, artificial intelligence (AI), and machine learning systems, have begun to replace many of the repetitive, routine manual tasks that have traditionally defined entry-level positions, particularly in industries such as logistics, manufacturing, warehousing, and retail (Onifade et al., 2022). This shift is transforming the role of entry-level workers from performing manual labour to taking on more complex responsibilities such as operating precision machinery, monitoring automated systems, performing maintenance, and managing anomalies when automated processes fail. As a result, workers must acquire new technical competencies and problem-solving skills that were previously unnecessary in these roles (Autor, 2015).

In addition, HRMS are utilising advanced digital tools for recruitment, onboarding, performance management and workforce analytics, further increasing the complexity and scope of entry-level positions. Recruitment processes now typically involve automated applicant tracking systems, AI-based candidate screening and gamified assessments, requiring prospective employees to be digitally literate before they enter the workforce (Cappelli, 2009). These shifts challenge the conventional wisdom that “entry-level” jobs are low-skilled and easily replaceable. In their place, new employees are increasingly expected to have basic digital literacy and cognitive skills, blurring the line between entry-level and skilled work  (Frey and Osborne, 2017). As a result, organisations are under pressure to redesign job roles, invest in upskilling employees and rethink recruitment criteria to ensure their workforce can thrive in a technologically enhanced labour environment.

2.5 Consequences of Changes to Entry-Level Jobs for Employers and Workers

2.5.1 For Employers

Employers face the dual challenge of adapting HR policies to manage rapid technological advances and persistent labour shortages. The introduction of automation and digital technologies can significantly improve operational efficiency, reduce errors and increase flexibility in workflow management (Adepoju et al., 2022). However, these benefits come with significant upfront and ongoing investment in employee training and development, particularly at the entry level, where workers must acquire new technical skills to operate, monitor and maintain increasingly complex automated systems (Nedelkoska and Quintini, 2018). This shift requires a rethinking of traditional recruitment criteria, induction programmes and continuous learning programmes to ensure that employees are well adapted to the changing demands of the job.

In addition to technological adaptation, employers have had to contend with increasing competition for a shrinking pool of available workers, particularly in sectors that have historically relied on low-skilled labour, such as retailing, manufacturing and social care. This scarcity is forcing firms to improve the quality of work by offering more competitive remuneration packages (including better wages, benefits and flexible working arrangements) to meet the varying needs of employees. Increasing employee engagement through a supportive workplace culture, professional development opportunities and recognition programmes is critical to reducing turnover and fostering loyalty. In addition, employers may need to innovate in workforce planning, adopt more inclusive recruitment practices and invest in upskilling and re-skilling initiatives to expand the talent pipeline within the existing workforce. 

Thus, the thoughtful integration of technology and human resource management is a key strategic priority for maintaining productivity, competitiveness and employee satisfaction in today’s dynamic labour market.

2.5.2 For Workers

For workers, the digitisation and automation of entry-level jobs has created a mix of opportunity and uncertainty. On the one hand, technological change opens up pathways for skills acquisition and career development that were previously less accessible to low-skilled workers. The use of digital learning platforms, e-training modules, and real-time performance feedback can enhance employees’ competencies in areas such as digital literacy, data interpretation, and technical troubleshooting, thereby increasing their employability and potential for upward mobility (World Economic Forum, 2020). These new capabilities can help workers transition into higher-skilled positions, thereby improving long-term career prospects and earnings.

On the other hand, this shift also poses significant risks, especially for workers who lack the necessary digital skills or access to training resources. Less skilled jobs may become obsolete or evolve into more precarious forms of employment, characterised by irregular working hours, temporary contracts and reduced job security (Arntz, Gregory and Zierahn, 2016). Such developments can exacerbate labour market inequalities, disproportionately affecting marginalized groups and widening the digital divide. In addition, changing job content and rising expectations may lead to increased work intensity, stress and job dissatisfaction for some workers, which may be detrimental to overall well-being and mental health. The stress of constantly adapting to new technologies and performance monitoring systems may also create feelings of insecurity and alienation among employees, which may affect motivation and commitment to the organisation (Salanova, Llorens and Cifre, 2013).

In this context, it is crucial to consider how policy interventions, employer support mechanisms, and worker agency can collectively mitigate adverse effects. Providing equitable access to upskilling programs, fostering inclusive workplace cultures, and ensuring fair treatment under emerging digital management practices will be essential to enable workers not only to survive but to thrive amid ongoing technological disruption.

2.6 Research Gaps and Future Directions

While there is a large body of research exploring the wider implications of digitisation and automation on employment patterns and workforce dynamics, there is still a clear gap in industry-specific research on how organisations are managing the transition to entry-level roles in the face of the combined pressures of technological change and labour market shortages. Much of the existing literature tends to focus on macro-trends or high-skilled occupations, often ignoring the nuanced ways in which different industries are adapting the recruitment, training and job design of entry-level workers to meet these evolving challenges.

There is limited empirical data that captures the different perspectives of the key stakeholders involved in this transformation. Particularly in the case of entry-level positions, a key link within organisations, the existing literature focuses on quantitative statistics and theoretical frameworks, and lacks an in-depth exploration of the qualitative perspectives of stakeholders within firms – such as human resource managers, senior leaders, trade union representatives, and industry associations. Understanding how these players perceive, negotiate and influence changes in entry-level employment is critical to developing effective policies and organisational strategies that balance operational efficiency with employee well-being and career development.

Currently, most research on how digital transformation affects low-skilled jobs uses data from a single point in time, and lacks long-term studies. This makes it hard to understand how the labor market is changing over time, especially after the COVID-19 and recent policy changes. Long-term, multi-stage qualitative interview studies can capture the true reflection of the evolution of workers’ career paths, changes in job satisfaction, as well as organisational culture and policy adjustments, and thus provide more actionable recommendations for policymaking and business practices.

2.7 Conclusion

The changing nature of entry-level jobs exemplifies the broader, multifaceted transformations occurring across society, technology, and the global economy. As organisations face mounting pressures from rapid digitalisation, automation, and persistent labour shortages, they must fundamentally rethink how entry-level roles are designed, managed, and integrated within their human resource systems. For workers, these changes bring both opportunities to acquire new skills and progress professionally, as well as challenges related to job stability, skill mismatches, and potential exclusion for those lacking digital competencies. By embracing adaptive approaches to managing entry-level employment, organisations can better align their human capital strategies with the realities of the 21st-century labour market, thereby contributing to inclusive growth and social cohesion in an increasingly digital world.

3.0 Methodology

3.1 Introduction

This chapter outlines a methodological framework for studying the changing nature of entry-level work in the UK, particularly in the context of Brexit, the COVID-19 pandemic, labor shortages, and rapid technological advancement. Given the research’s purpose of exploring the lived experiences, perceptions, and strategic responses of key organizational stakeholders, we employed a qualitative research design grounded in interpretivist philosophy. This approach is designed to provide Abeceder Limited with actionable intelligence to support client-centred consultancy.

3.2 Research Philosophy and Design

Adopting an interpretivist epistemological stance, this study aims to explore organizational stakeholders’ subjective experiences, perceptions, and interpretations of the transformation of entry-level and entry-level positions in the contemporary labor market. Within this philosophical paradigm, reality is viewed as socially constructed (Schwandt, 1994), meaning that the meaning and function of entry-level positions are not fixed or universally agreed upon but are shaped by ongoing social interactions, institutional norms, and organizational practices. Therefore, this study does not aim to establish universal laws or quantifiable truths about these roles; rather, it aims to uncover the multiple realities held by those directly involved in their evolution, such as HR managers, senior leaders, and industry representatives.

Given this study’s focus on interpretation and sensemaking, a qualitative research design was deemed most appropriate. Qualitative methods are particularly effective in exploring complex, fluid, and under-researched phenomena (Creswell and Poth, 2018), such as the changing nature of entry-level employment in the wake of Brexit, the COVID-19 pandemic, and accelerated technological change. These dynamics are not easily captured through numerical data or standardized metrics; instead, they require detailed and context-rich descriptions that reflect stakeholders’ lived experiences of navigating organizational uncertainty and transformation (Silverman, 2020). Qualitative methods allow researchers to explore the nuances of how entry-level positions are being redefined—whether through changes in job tasks, skill requirements, recruitment strategies, or organizational expectations.

To capture these rich and situated insights, the study will employ semi-structured interviews as the primary method of data collection. This approach allows for both consistency across interviews and flexibility to probe into specific themes as they emerge, making it well-suited to exploring the subjective and context-specific interpretations of organisational actors (King et al., 2018). Through these interviews, the researcher aims to generate in-depth narratives that illuminate how organisations are responding to labour market shifts, adapting recruitment and onboarding practices, and redefining the purpose and function of junior roles in response to technological transformation and workforce constraints.

Moreover, this research adopts a case study approach, allowing for an in-depth examination of specific organisational contexts while facilitating cross-case comparisons across different sectors (Yin, 2018). This strategy is essential for identifying sector-specific patterns as well as broader trends in how entry-level work is perceived, constructed, and operationalised.

Importantly, the study is designed in collaboration with both an academic supervisor and a client organisation—Abeceder Ltd, a human resource management consultancy. This dual partnership ensures that the research is both academically rigorous and practically relevant. Working closely with Abeceder’s client manager enables access to industry stakeholders and provides critical insight into the real-world HR challenges organisations currently face. This practice-oriented focus supports Abeceder’s strategic aim to generate evidence-based consultancy advice, helping clients to adapt their hiring, onboarding, and workforce development strategies in light of labour shortages and technological disruption.

3.3 Research Strategy and Case Selection

To explore how entry-level positions are redefined across different organisational contexts, this study adopts a multiple case study approach. The case study method is particularly suited to examining complex real-world organisational phenomena, where the boundaries between the research subject and its broader context are often blurred (Yin, 2018). Since entry-level positions are influenced by organisational practices, industry norms, labour market dynamics, and broader socio-economic changes, the case study design enables a comprehensive examination of these interrelated factors.

The multi-case design enhances the depth and breadth of the research by allowing for in-depth analysis within individual cases and comparisons across different cases. In each organisational case, the researcher will explore the structure of entry-level positions, the challenges faced by human resources practitioners, and the strategies adopted to address labour shortages, digital transformation, and changing employee expectations. Cross-case analysis will reveal industry-specific differences and common themes, thereby enhancing the robustness and generalisability of research conclusions (Eisenhardt, 1989).

Case selection will employ a purposive sampling strategy, targeting organisations and stakeholders that can provide relevant and diverse perspectives on the research questions. Industries such as social care, manufacturing, and retailing are considered particularly relevant, as they are highly dependent on primary labour and have been impacted by Brexit, the COVID-19 pandemic, and automation. Within these industries, participating organisations will be selected based on the following criteria:

1. A significant proportion of primary positions in their workforce;
2. Evidence of recent changes in recruitment, job design, or workforce management;
3. Accessible through Abeceder Ltd’s professional network and connections.

Each case will involve interviews with multiple stakeholders to capture diverse perspectives within the same organisational context. This design not only enables the research to gain a deep understanding of organisational strategies but also facilitates comparisons and contrasts across different industries.

3.4 Data Collection Methods

The primary method of data collection will be semi-structured interviews with organisational stakeholders. Semi-structured interviews are particularly suitable for this study because they strike a balance between structure and flexibility—ensuring that all key themes are covered across all participants while allowing interviewees to elaborate on the most salient issues in their organisational context (King et al., 2018).

The semi-structured interview format covers pre-determined topics such as recruitment practices, job design changes, the impact of digitalisation and automation, employer influence, and employee development to ensure consistency. It also allows participants to reflect on the issues they consider most salient, thereby forming a rich narrative that reveals how organisations interpret and respond to changing labour market conditions.

An interview guide will be developed to ensure that the main research themes identified in the literature review are covered, including:

1. The role of entry-level positions within organisations;
2. Changes in job tasks, responsibilities, and required skills;
3. The impact of digitalisation and automation on job design;
4. The impact on employers and employees.

Interviews typically last 20 to 30 minutes and are conducted online to ensure participant engagement and time availability.

Research participants will be recruited through purposive sampling, focusing on individuals in management positions or those with direct knowledge of entry-level job structures. Approximately 5 interviews are expected to be conducted to ensure research depth while remaining within the project timeframe.

Interviewee	Identity	Access	Implementation
Interviewee 1	British Chambers of Commerce staff	Abeceder Ltd’s network	Teams Meeting
Interviewee 2	Human Resources Consultancy	Abeceder Ltd’s network	Teams Meeting
Interviewee 3	Retail Human Resources Manager	Online-recruitment	Teams Meeting
Interviewee 4	Manufacturing Production Supervisor	Online-recruitment	Teams Meeting
Interviewee 5	Head of Social Care Services	Online-recruitment	Teams Meeting

Table 3- 1  Interviewee basic information

The guide will be iteratively optimised, incorporating feedback from academic supervisors and Abeceder Ltd, to ensure it aligns with both research objectives and practical human resource management needs.

3.5 Data Analysis

Data collected through semi-structured interviews will be analysed using thematic analysis (Braun and Clarke, 2006). First, interview recordings will be transcribed and carefully read to familiarise with the content. Subsequently, key points relevant to the research questions will be identified and coded. These codes will be grouped under broader themes to reveal common patterns across different cases. Themes will then be reviewed, refined, and explicitly named to capture the core perspectives expressed by participants. Finally, themes will be presented in a written report and linked to the literature review and research objectives.

3.6 Ethical Considerations

The study will strictly adhere to the University of Leeds’ ethical guidelines to ensure that all research activities are conducted responsibly and respect the rights of participants. Prior to participation, informed consent will be obtained from all interviewees, who will be provided with an information sheet outlining the purpose of the research, the voluntary nature of their involvement, the measures taken to protect confidentiality, and their right to withdraw at any stage without consequence. To preserve anonymity and confidentiality, pseudonyms will be used in all transcripts and written outputs, and any identifying information will be removed to prevent the recognition of individuals or organisations. Data security will be safeguarded through the storage of digital files in encrypted formats, accessible only to the researcher and academic supervisor. Participants will also be informed that research findings will be shared with Abeceder Ltd in a non-attributable form and used solely to support evidence-based consultancy advice. Ethical approval will be formally sought and obtained from the University’s ethics review panel before data collection commences, ensuring compliance with institutional and legal requirements throughout the project.

4.0 Analysis and Findings

4.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the synthesised findings of this qualitative research, which sought to explore five core research questions concerning shifts in the nature of entry-level work in the United Kingdom. Building upon the interpretivist qualitative research design detailed in Chapter 3, this section reveals the subjective experiences, perceptions, and strategic responses of key organisational stakeholders within Britain’s evolving labour market. This chapter systematically presents the collected data, highlighting key patterns and trends through interviewee insights. Data was primarily gathered through semi-structured interviews with five key organisational stakeholders from diverse sectors and analysed using thematic analysis.

4.2 Data Presentation

This section systematically presents the raw and summarized findings derived from the semi-structured interviews. The data is organized according to the five thematic areas directly corresponding to the research questions, providing a detailed account of the observed phenomena and trends. 

4.2.1 Entry-Level Jobs as Part of HR Systems and How This Is Changing

The organisational approach to recognising and integrating entry-level positions within human resources systems is undergoing a significant transformation. Traditionally viewed primarily as a low-cost recruitment mechanism to fill immediate labour gaps, such roles are increasingly being repositioned as strategic entry points for talent development and long-term organisational stability (Cappelli, 2012).

Interviewee 3 (Retail HR Manager) explicitly stated that entry-level roles ‘remain a crucial link in the talent pipeline,’ emphasising that ‘many employees gain experience through these positions before successfully progressing to departmental supervisors or regional managers.’ This confirms the recognition of entry-level roles as the foundational steps on the internal career ladder. Similarly, Interviewee 5 (Social Care Services Manager) affirmed these roles as ‘the foundation for cultivating future nursing professionals, with many senior nurses having started as assistants,’ indicating the organisation’s intent to develop specialised skills from the outset of employment.

However, this strategic shift is not without its complexities. Interviewee 2 from a human resources consultancy noted a widening gap between traditionally defined “entry-level positions” (requiring no experience) and employers’ actual requirements – employers “typically demand 1-3 years” experience’, creating a significant barrier for new entrants. Interviewee 1 (British Chamber of Commerce staff member) elaborated further: ‘As the minimum wage continues to rise, employers face increasing difficulty recruiting inexperienced newcomers, as their salary levels now barely differ from those of experienced staff.’ This economic pressure, compounded by demands for immediate productivity, drives employers towards seeking candidates possessing some practical experience or more advanced foundational skills.

In summary, the interviews reveal a dual shift in perceptions regarding entry-level positions: on the one hand, there is a growing recognition of their strategic importance as talent pipelines; on the other, the trend of increasingly stringent experience requirements coupled with mounting economic pressures appears to be raising traditional entry barriers.

4.2.2 Work Activities and Tasks in Entry-Level Jobs

Entry-level roles are exhibiting a marked trend towards greater diversity in job content and responsibilities, alongside a continuous increase in complexity (Autor, 2015). Such positions are no longer confined to repetitive manual labour but now frequently incorporate digital operations, customer service, and problem-solving duties.

Interviewee 3 (a retail human resources manager) elucidated this shift: ‘New recruits must now not only master traditional in-store sales but also handle online orders, operate mobile point-of-sale terminals, utilise inventory management systems, and even perform basic data entry.’ This indicates roles are evolving into multi-skilled positions to adapt to the rapidly changing retail landscape, encompassing dual functions of front-end customer interaction and back-end digital processing.

Within the manufacturing sector, Interviewee 4 elaborated on the evolution of assembly line operator responsibilities. Traditionally a role dominated by manual labour, it now requires personnel to possess ‘the ability to operate and monitor automated equipment, including basic troubleshooting.’ Employees must master foundational mechanical knowledge and data interpretation skills, rendering the work more technically oriented.

Similarly, within the social care sector, Respondent 5 (Social Care Services Manager) noted that care assistants, beyond providing basic daily care, hygiene support and emotional assistance, now must ‘complete electronic health record entries and implement new regulations and policies from government and regulatory bodies.’ This indicates that digital administrative tasks and compliance duties have been integrated into roles previously centred on practical operations and interpersonal interactions.

Overall, these figures indicate that the scope of responsibilities for entry-level positions is expanding. They now encompass not only traditional duties but also incorporate new digital, technological and regulatory elements, thereby significantly increasing job complexity across the observed industries.

4.2.3 Sectoral Changes in Entry-Level Jobs

Interviews reveal that while changes manifest differently across sectors, heightened skill requirements and expanded role responsibilities have become a universal trend in entry-level position evolution.

Within retail, Interviewee 3 (Human Resources Manager) described how roles have adapted to the e-commerce and digitalisation wave, demanding employees ‘possess multifaceted skills to navigate rapidly changing work environments’ by integrating traditional sales with digital order fulfilment.

In the manufacturing sector detailed by Interviewee 4 (Manufacturing Production Supervisor), a marked shift is underway from labour-intensive roles towards technical positions. Entry-level roles now focus on ‘operating and monitoring automated equipment alongside basic troubleshooting,’ indicating a transition towards more technically demanding tasks.

Within the social care sector, Interviewee 5 (Head of Social Care Services) explained that while human interaction remains central, the introduction of ‘electronic health record input and new regulatory implementation’ has professionalised and standardised entry-level care roles, though these have not yet been fully automated.

From a broader cross-sector perspective, Interviewee 2 (Human Resources Consultancy) and Respondent 1 (British Chambers of Commerce Staff) highlighted differing impacts across task types and industries. Interviewee 2 noted that ‘knowledge-intensive industries are more profoundly affected by automation’, while Respondent 1 emphasised that ‘process-driven roles (such as customer service and basic administrative positions) are being replaced by online bots or automated systems’, but that roles involving ‘interpersonal interaction and service provision (such as bartending) remain difficult to fully automate at present’.

Across the industries surveyed, a common pattern emerged: although each sector made specific adjustments based on its characteristics, entry-level positions generally exhibited a trend towards heightened skill requirements and expanded responsibilities (Goos and Manning, 2007). The impact of automation appears more pronounced on routine tasks, while roles demanding significant interpersonal interaction have been relatively less affected.

4.2.4 Impact of Digitalisation, Technological Change and Automation

The interviews consistently highlighted that digitalisation, technological transformation and automation are akin to a double-edged sword (as implied by Interviewee 1). While significantly boosting efficiency and productivity, they have also substantially raised skill thresholds, intensifying recruitment and training challenges.

On the positive side, Interviewee 4 (Manufacturing Production Supervisor) explicitly stated: ‘Robots and automated assembly lines have replaced a great deal of repetitive manual labour, thereby boosting production efficiency.’ Similarly, Interviewee 5 (Social Care Services Supervisor) highlighted that the adoption of ‘electronic health records and assistive devices has reduced administrative burdens,’ consequently enhancing both administrative efficiency and care quality.

However, these advantages are accompanied by heightened demands on the workforce. Interviewee 3 (Retail Human Resources Manager) noted that digitalisation ‘has also altered the skill sets required for these roles’, necessitating that ‘induction training must now include proficiency in digital tools, data security, and online customer communication skills’. Interviewee 4 explicitly stated that automation ‘places greater demands on employees’ technical capabilities’.

From a broader labour market perspective, Interviewee 2 from an HR consultancy cautioned that ‘automation has a particularly adverse impact on early-career employees,’ as ‘many roles now require staff to master technologies like artificial intelligence, or risk becoming redundant.’ Interviewee 1 from the British Chambers of Commerce emphasised that while most businesses expect employees to acquire foundational AI application skills to enhance efficiency, they simultaneously harbour concerns that ‘over-reliance on AI may erode critical thinking capabilities.’

In short, the research findings highlight the dual impact of digitalisation and automation: whilst they deliver significant gains in efficiency and quality, they simultaneously bring heightened skill requirements and present new challenges to workforce adaptability.

4.2.5 Consequences for Employers and Workers

The profound transformation of entry-level positions has significantly impacted both employers and workers, shifting the labour market dynamics from a “low-demand, low-risk” paradigm to one characterised by “high demand and high challenge”.

For employers, the primary impact lies in a shift in perspective – moving away from viewing entry roles as a source of low-cost labour towards recognising them as critical training investment points. Interviewee 3 (Human Resources Manager at a retail enterprise) emphasised that ‘challenges include maintaining staff motivation, reducing turnover rates, and continually updating training content to meet digital demands,’ indicating rising operational costs associated with talent development. Interviewee 1 (British Chamber of Commerce staff member) further elucidated broader systemic issues: ‘The reduction in entry-level positions has led to insufficient talent reserves at the grassroots level across industries, consequently impacting the supply of personnel for higher-level roles.’

For workers, the digitalisation and automation of entry-level positions present a duality of both opportunity and risk. On the one hand, Interviewee 3 (Retail Human Resources Manager) noted: ‘Digitalisation makes work more challenging and rewarding, enabling staff to acquire greater professional skills,’ which helps enhance employability and career prospects. Interviewee 4 (Manufacturing Production Supervisor) similarly observed that some employees ‘gained promotion opportunities by mastering new technologies.’

However, these opportunities are accompanied by significant pressure. Interviewee 3 acknowledged that digitalisation ‘increases job complexity and psychological stress.’ Interviewee 5 (Social Care Services Manager) concurred, emphasising that ‘staff less adept with technology face adaptation pressures.’ The most pronounced risk perspective came from Interviewee 2 (Human Resources Consultant), who cautioned: ‘Many roles now require employees to master technologies like artificial intelligence; otherwise, they may face unemployment risks.’

In summary, the transformation of entry-level positions appears to be reshaping the dynamics of the labour market. Employers must balance increased investment in talent against increasingly complex operational demands, while workers face a dual challenge: the potential for growth opportunities coexists with the dual pressures of heightened skill requirements and employment instability.

4.3 Thematic Analysis

This section moves beyond the descriptive presentation of research findings in Section 4.2 to provide a comprehensive analytical discussion. Drawing upon empirical data, this part critically examines the underlying causes of changes in entry-level work, their implications, and the points of convergence and divergence between these changes and existing theoretical frameworks and literature.

4.3.1 Theme 1: From Transactional Labour to Strategic Human Capital Investment

Code	Category	Theme	Main group
1.1 Talent Pipeline	Strategic Intent: Talent Development	Strategic HR Shift	Employers/HR Professionals
1.2 Future Professional Base
1.3 Rising Wage Impact	Operational Realities: Economic Pressure	Entry Barriers & Operational Challenges
1.4 Experience Demand	Operational Realities: Entry Barriers
1.5 Recruitment Difficulty	Operational Realities: Operational Hurdles

Table 4- 1 Codes for Theme 1

Qualitative data from the interviews revealed a significant paradigm shift in how organizations view and integrate entry-level positions and their HR ecosystems. Traditionally, entry-level positions have been categorized as filling immediate labor gaps with minimal investment, primarily serving as a transactional source of labor (Cappelli, 2012). However, current findings suggest a need for a profound reassessment. These positions are increasingly being positioned as key strategic entry points for human capital development and long-term organizational stability. Interviewees 3 and 5 described these positions as a foundational “talent pipeline” and “a foundation for developing future professionals,” demonstrating a clear strategic intent to cultivate professional skills and foster internal career development from the outset. This reflects contemporary HR discourse advocating for a more holistic and developmental approach to talent management (Ulrich and Dulebohn, 2015). Within this perspective, carefully designed early career development pathways are crucial for building a sustainable, adaptable, and skilled workforce capable of meeting future challenges. This shift reflects a recognition that in a rapidly evolving economic landscape, a strong internal talent pool is a key competitive advantage, and that companies are moving beyond a mindset of short-term cost reduction to one of long-term value creation.

However, this strategic reassessment is not without inherent contradictions and challenges, creating a complex and often conflicting recruitment landscape. A key finding is the widening gap between the traditional definition of “entry-level” (often meaning little to no experience) and employers’ actual requirement of “1-3 years of experience” (Interviewee 2 from an HR consultancy). This creates a significant, almost paradoxical barrier to entry for truly inexperienced individuals, directly undermining the stated strategic goal of developing talent from the ground up (Brown et al., 2010). This discrepancy is partly due to rising minimum wages, which, as Interviewee 1 emphasized, are now “barely different from what experienced employees earn.” This economic pressure, coupled with the immediate productivity expectations of increasingly complex and digitally enabled roles, incentivizes employers to seek candidates who can provide immediate value, rather than those who require extensive foundational training (Acemoglu and Autor, 2011). This dynamic effectively shifts the burden of initial skills acquisition from employers to job seekers, requiring a higher level of “work readiness” even for ostensibly entry-level positions. This trend has the potential to exacerbate youth unemployment and narrow opportunities for social mobility, particularly for disadvantaged groups who lack opportunities for informal experience accumulation. 

This suggests that while the intention to view entry-level positions as strategic remains, operational realities such as cost pressures and the need for immediate returns often force organizations to compromise on truly low barriers to entry, resulting in complex and conflicting approaches to early-career recruitment. This inadvertently reinforces a vicious cycle of inexperienced new entrants to the workforce. Consequently, the gap between rhetoric and reality in entry-level recruitment poses significant challenges to individual career trajectories and broader workforce development strategies.

4.3.2 Theme 2: Entry-Level Complexity and the Demand for Hybrid Competencies

Code	Category	Theme	Main group
2.1: Digital Literacy	Core Competencies: Digital Skills	Hybrid Competency Demand	Employers/HR Professionals / Workers
2.2: Multi-tasking	Core Competencies: Task Expansion
2.3:Troubleshooting	Technical Aptitude: Problem-Solving	Technical and Cognitive Shift
2.4: Data Entry/Monitoring	Technical Aptitude: Administrative & Analytical Tasks
2.5: Adaptability	Soft Skills: Continuous Learning & Flexibility	Adaptive Workforce Requirement

Table 4- 2 Codes for Theme 2

Interviewers’ detailed descriptions reveal a fundamental shift in the relationship between skills and tasks for entry-level positions. The days when these entry-level positions were primarily defined by repetitive, manual, or narrowly defined tasks are largely over. Instead, qualitative data clearly demonstrates a shift toward multi-faceted roles requiring a blend of skills, where digital literacy, customer interaction, and problem-solving skills converge and overlap.

For example, in the retail industry, Interviewer 3 emphasized that new hires not only need to manage traditional sales functions but also handle “online orders, mobile point-of-sale terminals, inventory management systems, and basic data entry.” Employees must combine technical proficiency with effective interpersonal communication to meet evolving consumer expectations in the omnichannel retail environment.

Similarly, manufacturing jobs traditionally associated with manual labor now require greater technical sophistication. Interviewee 4 explained that operators are increasingly required to “operate and monitor automated equipment,” requiring basic mechanical knowledge and data interpretation skills. This shift, which requires human workers to collaborate with advanced mechanical and digital systems, transforms physically intensive tasks into cognitively demanding and technically complex ones (Autor, 2015). Even social care, traditionally centered on emotional and interpersonal support, has expanded to include administrative duties, such as maintaining electronic health records and ensuring compliance with new regulatory frameworks (Interviewee 5).

The integration of diverse tasks into entry-level positions marks a significant shift away from the traditional “low-skill” label. These positions are increasingly digitally augmented and technology-assisted, requiring employees to demonstrate adaptability, communication, and problem-solving skills while navigating complex technological environments.

This shift aligns with the theory of task-biased technological change proposed by Autor et al. (2003), which argues that technology tends to replace routine manual labor while augmenting non-routine cognitive and interpersonal tasks. Recent evidence indicates that even entry-level roles now demand more complex and diverse skill sets.

These changes pose significant challenges to education and training systems. Traditional vocational and secondary education programs may no longer adequately equip new entrants with the required mix of digital, technical, and soft skills. Curriculum reforms are urgently needed to cultivate digital literacy, problem-solving, and interpersonal skills early in students’ careers, while expanding apprenticeship and internship opportunities to adapt them to evolving career demands (Taguma et al., 2023).

Furthermore, this change exacerbates persistent skills mismatches, with employers struggling to find candidates with the right skills and many young workers feeling ill-prepared for the demands of the modern workplace (Bessen, 2018).

In summary, the qualitative data show a clear trend towards digitally integrated entry-level positions, which will require not only updated skill sets but also systemic reforms in education, training, and social policies to support inclusive and effective workforce transformation.

4.3.3 Theme 3: Digitalization and Automation: Efficiency and Skill Transformation

Code	Category	Theme	Main group
3.1 Efficiency Gain	Operational Effectiveness	Positive Organizational Impacts	Employers
3.2 Skill Threshold Rise	Workforce Competency Demands	Evolving Skill Requirements	Workers/Employers
3.3 Unemployment Risk	Labor Market Vulnerabilities	Potential Social Costs	Workers/HR Consultancy
3.4 Digital Literacy Demand	Foundational Digital Skills	Essential Competency Shift	All stakeholders
3.5 Over-reliance on AI	Ethical Concerns	Challenges of Integration	Workers/Industry Reps

Table 4- 3 Codes for Theme 3

Qualitative research consistently demonstrates that digitalization, technological transformation, and automation are a double-edged sword, delivering significant efficiency gains while also requiring a profound recalibration of key workforce skills, demonstrating the complex interplay between technological advancement and human capital development (Challoumis, 2024).

On the one hand, data clearly demonstrates the critical role these technologies play in organizational optimization. Across industries, digitalization and automation solutions are being actively deployed to improve productivity and service delivery. For example, it is widely observed that the integration of robotics into automated assembly lines has significantly streamlined manufacturing processes, shortening production cycles and reducing operating costs. Similarly, the adoption of electronic health records and assistive technologies in social care settings has not only reduced administrative burdens but also significantly improved the precision and responsiveness of patient care. These examples underscore that the pursuit of efficiency and operational excellence remains a primary economic driver for the widespread adoption of advanced technologies.

However, the automation of routine or manual tasks does not mean the complete obsolescence of the human workforce. Instead, it fundamentally reshapes the nature of work, shifting demand towards higher-order cognitive, technical, and complex problem-solving skills. This re-specialization trend is evident across industries. For example, in manufacturing, a shift has been observed in requiring operators to possess both basic mechanical knowledge and expertise in interpreting and troubleshooting automated equipment, shifting physically demanding positions towards more cognitive and technically demanding ones (Acemoglu and Restrepo, 2018). This growing skills demand presents significant challenges, particularly for early career professionals who may lack these advanced skills upon entering the workforce. The potential for labor market redundancy for those unable to adapt to technologies like AI highlights the exclusionary effects of automation, which could exacerbate existing digital divides and further insecure employment prospects for vulnerable groups in the workforce.

Interviews also introduced a more nuanced perspective. Beyond the need to acquire new technical skills, there are concerns that over-reliance on AI could undermine critical thinking skills if not balanced with conscious development. This suggests a growing need for critical digital literacy and discernment, as workers must not only interact with advanced technological systems but also evaluate their outputs and understand their limitations (Selwyn, 2016). This implies that technology’s impact goes beyond simple task replacement and fundamentally reshapes the cognitive architecture of work itself, requiring workers—even entry-level employees—to be not only technically proficient but also intellectually agile, critically engaged, and able to reason ethically in technological environments.

In summary, the qualitative data paints a clear picture: the efficiency dividends of digitalization are inextricably linked to a more skilled, adaptable, and cognitively empowered workforce. This calls for proactive and comprehensive adjustments in education, training, and talent development strategies to address the complex challenges and opportunities presented by this technological transformation.

4.3.4 A Dynamic Landscape for Entry-Level Evolution

Code	Category	Theme	Main group
4.1 E-commerce Adaptation	Retail Sector Transformation	Sector-Specific Digitalization	Sectoral Dynamics
4.2 Digital Order Fulfillment
4.3 Automated Equipment Operation	Manufacturing Sector Evolution
4.4 Basic Troubleshooting
4.5 Electronic Health Records	Social Care Professionalisation
4.6 New Regulatory Implementation
4.7 Knowledge-Intensive Tasks	Cross-Sectoral Automation & Upskilling	Broader Labor Market Shifts	Broader Market Impact
4.8 Process-Driven Role Replacement
4.9 Interpersonal Role Resilience

Table 4- 4 Codes for Theme 4

A comparative analysis of the interview data highlights a dual process of transformation in entry-level jobs: industry-level differentiation and overall convergence. While each industry exhibits distinct drivers of change, all share a clear trend toward greater business complexity, higher skill requirements, and the integration of technology into even the most basic roles.

In the retail sector, this transformation is primarily driven by the market. The rise of e-commerce and digital platforms has redefined frontline roles, which now require hybrid skills that combine customer service with digital operations. This reflects a shift from purely transactional interactions to more complex service models, in which employees must navigate both physical and online spaces. These changes have made adaptability and multitasking core characteristics of modern entry-level retail jobs (Holzer, 2022).

Manufacturing, on the other hand, demonstrates a deeper structural restructuring. Entry-level jobs that traditionally relied on manual labor have evolved into technology-oriented roles that require operational knowledge of automated systems, troubleshooting, and data interpretation. Here, automation is not only transforming existing roles but also redefining the very nature of entry into the industry. Manufacturing roles are no longer low-skilled entry points but have become gateways to highly technical environments. This shift suggests that automation is accelerating the reclassification of work from labor-intensive to knowledge-intensive, even at the lowest levels of the organizational hierarchy (Bughin et al. 2018).

In contrast, the social care sector, while retaining its human-centered foundations, is steadily professionalizing. Regulatory compliance, digital recordkeeping, and the integration of formal procedures have placed administrative and legal responsibilities on caregivers. The result is a dual role: one centered on emotional labor and human interaction, and the other increasingly influenced by technological systems. This reflects broader pressures for accountability and efficiency within the welfare service sector while also highlighting the resilience of human interaction as a hallmark of the sector (Frey and Osborne, 2017).

Across industries, we can discern a common pattern: while the specifics of this transformation vary, the direction is consistent: entry-level jobs are no longer synonymous with “low-skill.” Instead, these roles are becoming increasingly diverse, requiring a diverse range of technical skills. This supports broader theoretical perspectives that emphasize the uneven but cumulative effects of automation: routine and process-driven tasks are most vulnerable to replacement, while roles involving interpersonal interaction, creativity, or situational judgment remain relatively resistant.

The impact is twofold. First, the traditional accessibility of entry-level jobs is eroding due to the higher base of skills required from the outset, raising the bar for new entrants and potentially exacerbating labor shortages. Second, for those who can adapt, entry-level positions are now becoming a more valuable foundation for careers, providing early exposure to complex skills and opportunities for advancement (Goover AI, 2025). Consequently, entry-level jobs are being redefined as the first stage of continuous skill development rather than as temporary low-skill occupations.

4.3.5 Theme 5: The New Labor Market Paradigm

Code	Category	Theme	Main group
5.1 Skill Development	Skill Enhancement & Progression	Worker Opportunity	Workers
5.2 Career Advancement
5.3 Job Complexity	Increased Work Demands	Worker Pressure
5.4 Psychological Strain
5.5 Talent Shortage	Workforce Gaps & Investment	Employer Challenge	Employers
5.6 Increased Training Investment
5.7 Turnover Management
5.8 Unemployment Risk	Employment Precarity	Worker Risk/Exclusion	Workers
5.9 Precarity

Table 4- 5 Codes for Theme 5

The profound and multifaceted transformation of entry-level positions has fundamentally reshaped the labor market. It has shifted from a “low-demand, low-risk” model to one characterized by “high demand, high challenge” for both employers and employees. This paradigm shift is not only a direct result of technological advancement but also an inevitable consequence of global economic restructuring and a reassessment of talent strategies.

For employers, this shift requires a fundamental realignment of their HR strategies and significant operational adjustments. Qualitative data shows that employers have shifted from viewing entry-level positions solely as a source of cheap labor to viewing them as key investments in talent development and building future organizational capabilities (Bersin, 2025). However, this strategic shift also presents significant operational challenges.

For example, companies are generally faced with the challenges of maintaining employee engagement, reducing employee turnover, and continuously updating training content, struggling to keep pace with the ongoing demands of digital transformation. This highlights the spiraling costs of recruiting, developing, and retaining talent adaptable to this new environment (Deloitte, 2025). Furthermore, there are concerns about the decline in entry-level positions, which is believed to lead to a “deficient talent pool at the grassroots level” across industries. This suggests that systemic market failures are impacting the long-term talent pipeline for senior roles, posing a structural challenge not only to short-term recruitment but also to long-term growth and innovation (The Times, 2025).

For employees, the changing environment presents both opportunities and risks. On the one hand, increasingly complex work and deeper digital integration can significantly enhance skills and improve career prospects.

For example, observations indicate that digitalization makes work “more challenging and rewarding, enabling employees to acquire stronger professional skills,” while other examples emphasize that “mastering new technologies opens opportunities for advancement.” This aligns with the optimistic view that technology can enrich work content and create new career paths. Employees have the opportunity to free themselves from repetitive tasks and engage in work that requires greater cognitive depth, higher-order thinking, and problem-solving skills, thereby enhancing their personal value and career development (LaSalle Network, 2025).

However, these opportunities are inextricably linked with significant pressure and precarity. There is explicit acknowledgment of “increased job complexity and psychological stress,” a sentiment echoed by concerns regarding “adaptation pressures” for less technologically adept staff. The most acute risk, as articulated by various experts, is the direct “unemployment risks” faced by those unable to master new technologies like Artificial Intelligence. This threat of exclusion and job precarity for segments of the workforce, particularly early-career individuals, underscores a widening gap between those who can adapt and those who fall behind (World Economic Forum, 2025).

This duality requires stronger social safety nets and proactive reskilling and upskilling initiatives to ensure a more equitable distribution of the benefits of technological progress. This is crucial not only for addressing growing inequality in the labor market, but also for building a more inclusive economic future where everyone can benefit from technological change.

5.0 Discussion and Conclusion

5.1 Overview of Findings

This study explores the evolution of entry-level jobs in the UK, focusing on how the dual forces of digitization and automation, coupled with persistent labor shortages, are reshaping these roles. Drawing on insights from stakeholders across various industries, our qualitative research reveals a significant paradigm shift from traditional low-cost, low-skilled transactional roles to more complex and hybrid roles. These shifts have profound implications for employers seeking efficiency and talent retention, as well as for workers facing new demands, opportunities, and potential risks.

5.2  In-depth Discussion and Interpretation of Key Findings

Our research critically analyzes several key findings that shed light on the dynamic landscape of entry-level employment. First, a common theme emerged: the concept of entry-level positions is being redefined, shifting from purely transactional labor to strategic human capital investments. Interviewees consistently emphasized that while these positions have traditionally served as basic staffing solutions, they are increasingly viewed as foundational for internal career development and talent development. However, this idealized view is at odds with reality: many “entry-level” positions now implicitly or explicitly require one to three years of experience, effectively creating a higher barrier to entry for true novices. This limits opportunities for the demographics these positions traditionally serve—young people and new entrants—and potentially exacerbates social inequality.

Second, the research clearly demonstrates the increasing complexity of work and the demand for hybrid skills. Entry-level tasks are no longer singular or routine; they now incorporate digital skills, technical operations, problem-solving, and enhanced interpersonal communication with clients. This supports the task-biased theory of technological change proposed by Autor et al. (2003), which posits that automation replaces routine tasks while simultaneously supplementing and amplifying the value of nonroutine cognitive and social skills. This means these jobs are no longer traditionally considered “low-skilled” but rather “foundational skills” positions requiring a broader and more flexible range of skills.

Third, the development of digitalization and automation has both advantages and disadvantages. On the one hand, they have brought undeniable efficiency gains, streamlined operational processes, and reduced physical workloads. On the other hand, these technologies have undoubtedly raised the skill threshold for entry-level employees. Proficiency in specific software, accurate data entry, and even basic AI interaction skills have become essential requirements. This has raised concerns about the digital exclusion of workers who lack these skills. Furthermore, if not managed properly, over-reliance on automated systems can undermine workers’ critical thinking and problem-solving abilities, highlighting the need not only for digital literacy but also for critical digital judgment.

Finally, while differences persist across industries, a convergence in skills upgrading is evident. The transformation of the retail industry is primarily market-driven, responding to e-commerce; the transformation of the manufacturing industry is structural, driven by advanced production technologies; and the evolution of social care integrates digital tools into human-centered services. While the drivers vary, all industries report a common trend towards more demanding roles that require adaptability, continuous learning and proficiency in digital skills, reinforcing the pervasive restructuring of the labor market.

5.3 Limitations of the Study

While this study provides rich qualitative insights, it does have several limitations. Qualitative research inherently involves a relatively small sample size, and its primary focus on management and HR perspectives limits the generalizability of the findings and may not fully capture the nuanced experiences of frontline employees. Future research that incorporates these employee voices will contribute to a more comprehensive understanding.

5.4 Directions for Future Research

Given these limitations, future research has significant potential to deepen our understanding of this evolving landscape. For example, tracking the career trajectories and skill development of entry-level workers could provide valuable insights into the long-term impacts of these shifts. Furthermore, comparative research across a wider range of industries or geographic regions is crucial for identifying best practices in specific sectors and effective policy responses to promote adaptation. Research focusing on the effectiveness of various training and reskilling programs is also crucial to assessing their effectiveness in helping entry-level workers cope with the demands of new hybrid roles. Beyond skills, it would also be beneficial to examine the impact on the psychological and social well-being of entry-level workers as they cope with the pressures of increasingly complex jobs and technological demands. Finally, exploring the role that unions and collective bargaining play in shaping the quality of and opportunities in these evolving entry-level jobs can provide important insights into how to better represent and protect workers in a changing workplace.

5.5 Overall Conclusions and Outlook

In summary, entry-level jobs in the UK are undergoing fundamental and irreversible transformation. The era of simple, low-skilled, low-cost entry-level roles is rapidly fading, replaced by more complex, digitally integrated roles that are strategic to organizational success. While digitalization and automation are powerful engines of efficiency, they also demand a more skilled and adaptable workforce, creating both significant career development opportunities and significant challenges in terms of skills gaps and potential exclusion.

For Abeceder Ltd, these findings highlight the need to guide clients toward proactive, people-centric HR strategies that embrace technological change while prioritizing talent development, employee well-being, and inclusive recruitment. Developing flexible recruitment models, robust upskilling programs, and a supportive workplace culture are critical for clients to thrive in this persistent labor shortage and rapidly evolving career landscape. The future of entry-level jobs isn’t one of elimination, but of evolution—requiring a collaborative effort among employers, educators, and policymakers to foster a resilient, adaptable, and skill-balanced workforce ready for the digital age.

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Appendices 

Appendix 1

Interview Question:

1. What industry are you in?

2. Are you interested in the impact of automation and digitalization on entry-level jobs? Why?

3. How do you currently define entry-level jobs within your organisation? What are the typical responsibilities associated with these roles?

4. In your view, what significant changes have occurred in the duties and expectations of entry-level positions over recent years?

5. How would you describe employee turnover in entry-level roles within your sector? Do these roles still serve as a career entry point within your organisation?

6. What specific impacts have digitalisation and automation had on entry-level jobs in your organisation or sector?

7. Have any traditional entry-level tasks been replaced by technology? How have new technological skill requirements affected your recruitment and training processes?

8. What role do entry-level jobs play in your overall talent acquisition and employee development strategies?

9. What role do entry-level jobs play in your overall talent acquisition and employee development strategies?

10. What opportunities and challenges have changes in entry-level jobs created for your organisation’s operations and HR management?

11. How do you perceive these changes affecting employees’ career progression and work experience?

Appendix 2

DISSERTATION RESEARCH CONSENT FORM 

Statement	Add your initals next to the statement if you agree
I confirm that I have read and understand the information sheet dated xx/xx/202x explaining the above research project and I have had the opportunity to ask questions about the project.
I understand that my participation is voluntary and that I am free to withdraw at any time without giving any reason until xx/xx/202x and without there being any negative consequences. In addition, should I not wish to answer any particular question or questions, I am free to decline. The data you have already submitted will be destroyed and excluded from the research if you decide to withdraw. Contact email: xxxxxx@leeds.ac.uk
I understand that members of the research team may have access to my anonymised responses. I understand that my name will not be linked with the research materials, and I will not be identified or identifiable in the report or reports that result from the research.   I understand that my responses will be kept strictly confidential.
I understand that the data collected from me may be stored and used in relevant future research in an anonymised form.
I understand that relevant sections of the data collected during the study, may be looked at by individuals from the University of Leeds or from regulatory authorities where it is relevant to my taking part in this research.
I agree to take part in the above research project and will inform the lead researcher should my contact details change.

Name of participant
Participant’s signature
Date	xx/xx/20xx
Name of lead researcher
Signature
Date	xx/xx/20xx

— Reprinted with permission. The author, Junying Wang, is a student at the University of Leeds who prepared this dissertation for the human resources consultancy company, Abeceder Ltd. According to its website, Abeceder exists to help every employer to increase employee productivity, improve employee engagement, and balance employee rewards with employee results. To achieve this Abeceder has developed a new approach to employee management that combines software with information, products, and professional expertise. The result is a comprehensive employee management solution that covers every aspect of every stage of the employer, employee relationship from hiring to retiring.