When he transferred to Simpson College in Indianola, Iowa last fall, Caleb immediately joined the football team and the choir. He’d been a member of both groups at his old school, so getting involved in these activities at his new school was an easy decision. In fact, since Simpson’s football staff had recruited Caleb, they even helped him out when he first arrived on campus.

You might think Caleb’s transition to Simpson was easy (or at least easier than yours will be!). But Caleb admits that he struggled at first. None of the familiar activities felt the same as they did at his old school. And like most transfer students, he was nervous about meeting new people and about how he would handle his new academic load.

The transition to a new school is never trivial, especially if you’re transferring from a two-year school to a four-year one. It’s normal to feel anxious about your transfer—after all, you already settled into your first school, made friends, and likely found a way to fit in. As a transfer student, you have to start over again, while also managing new academic challenges.

The good news is, colleges understand that the transition can be challenging on many levels for transfer students, and most try to make it as smooth as possible. They provide counselors whose job is to help transfer students adjust, and many schools also host orientations and events specifically for transfer students. And don’t forget that professors are always ready to help if you ask.

Get Involved! Many of the challenges you face as a transfer student are exactly the same ones you faced at your first school: meeting new people, feeling connected to the school, finding your academic groove. The things you did to feel involved then also apply now: put yourself in an environment where you can meet people. Join a club or a sports team. Take part in activities and social events associated with your department or major. Start a study group, or get involved in student government. When you first arrive, be sure to attend any orientation sessions the school offers, especially those geared to transfer students. That will expose you to the many different ways you can get involved, and you'll meet other students who are also looking to meet people.

Making new friends isn’t always easy, but it doesn’t have to be overwhelming.
If you made friends quickly at your last school, here’s your chance to repeat that success. If you struggled a bit last time, consider this a chance to start fresh and try some new tactics. (One student suggests offering gum or mints to classmates as an icebreaker!) Make it a goal to meet and learn the names of at least two or three new people every day. Also, consider getting involved in activities that enable you to work closely with faculty members or staff. These relationships will help you feel connected to the school,
to your department, and to your field of study in a different way than relationships with peers, and they can broaden and enrich your college experience.

Schools make a great effort to get students together in many different ways, so look for options that appeal to you. “Be social,” Caleb advises. “If you don’t get out of your comfort zone and try to experience the college for what it really is, you’ll never know what you've been missing.”

The Academic Angle You’ll almost certainly find academic life at your new school quite different from that of your previous one, especially if you transfer from a two-year school to a four-year one. “Expect it to be harder, even if you studied hard at your old school,” says Mishell, who transferred to the University of Tampa in Florida last year. “Be prepared for that, but don’t let it stress you out too much your first semester.”

As a transfer student, you’ll also need to make sure your course credits transferred properly. Although any transcript discrepancies or missing credits are likely to be caught before you arrive at your new school, Anna Lee, transfer student admissions counselor at Northwest Nazarene University in Nampa, Idaho, recommends taking a proactive approach. “Be your own advocate for your academic record,” she recommends. “Make sure your transcripts are received, that everything transfers over correctly, and that classes are substituted appropriately. And ask if something doesn’t look right.” You don’t want to find out too late that you missed registering for a class you need or that you took a class you don’t need.

Take Your Time Feeling stress about your transfer is normal, but try not to spend too much time worrying. Most transfer students, even those who get involved in activities right away, admit to sometimes feeling out of place socially and academically, especially during the first semester. These same students usually overcome those feelings within a few months. So as you prepare to transfer to your new school, focus on meeting lots of interesting new people, having challenging new experiences, and enjoying life on your new campus!

Article by Manya Chylinski and courtesy of www.careersandcolleges.com

Posted by Sarah Ennenga on December 31, 2007 at 2:12 PM | Leave a Comment (0)

Not so long ago, topics like minority health disparities and serving the needs of diverse patient populations were rarely taught in nursing classrooms. Today, a growing number of nursing schools are not only incorporating minority health into their curricula, they're building whole degree programs around it.

A decade ago, a smattering of nursing schools first began offering degree and certificate programs that focus specifically on minority health, eliminating health disparities and serving the needs of vulnerable patient populations. More recently, however, both the number and quality of these programs has begun to increase significantly.

"In the last five years, there has been a more serious attempt at understanding what we should be doing in these types of programs," says Shirley Moore, PhD, RN, FAAN, director of a new pre- and post-doctoral training program at Case Western Reserve University's Frances Payne Bolton School of Nursing in Cleveland that prepares nurses for research careers focused on vulnerable populations with multiple morbidities. "These programs are moving to more substantive issues in minority health and a greater understanding of culture as a context for care."

A primary reason for this shift is the increased national awareness of the crisis of minority health disparities. Studies such as Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care, the landmark report issued by the Institute of Medicine (IOM) in 2003, have documented extensively that Americans of color do not receive the same quality of care as the white majority. The IOM report also suggested that bias, prejudice and stereotyping on the part of health care providers may contribute to these differences in care.

The underlying principle of social responsibility runs deep in the nursing profession. As nurses become increasingly concerned about health care inequities in communities of color, they are spurred to gain a better understanding of these issues and to build the skills needed to address them. "Nurses have always had the underlying value of tailoring care and incorporating patient preferences," says Moore. "But how do we tailor care for patients when we don't know much about their [cultural] background?" Another reason for the proliferation of these programs is that federal agencies, such as the Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA), have earmarked millions of dollars in funding specifically for nursing schools. In fiscal year 2006, the agency awarded 151 Advanced Education Nursing grants, 53 Nursing Workforce Diversity grants and 138 Nurse Education Practice and Retention grants, says Annette Debisette, PhD, ANP, RN, director of HRSA's Division of Nursing. Last year, HRSA appropriated almost $150 million to nursing schools that offer programs focusing on underserved populations.

"The availability of [federal] dollars has permitted us to act on our good will to create these centers and programs that train people with new views on how to approach [cultural issues in nursing care]," Moore says.

Changing the Student Profile

Many of these minority-health-focused nursing programs are attracting a highly diverse mix of students from a wide spectrum of racial and ethnic backgrounds. While they are not targeted specifically to students of color, there's no denying that these types of programs have helped boost minority enrollments in nursing schools across the board.

"Every training program we've had that was working toward understanding diversity, access to care and other minority health issues has been a big attraction for minority students," says Moore. She adds that the new pre- and post-doctoral training program "is changing the profile of the doctoral student here at Case."

The Catholic University of America (CUA) School of Nursing in Washington, D.C., offers three HRSA-funded master's degree tracks in community/public health that focus on decreasing health disparities and increasing the number of nurses from minority populations. Of this year's graduates, 58% are students of color, says Eileen Sarsfield, PhD(c), MSN, APRN, BC, project manager of the Immigrant, Refugee and Global Health Clinical Nurse Specialist (CNS) Program track.

Three quarters of the students enrolled in this track for the fall semester are racial and ethnic minorities. "This program appeals to nurses who are immigrants themselves or minorities interested in giving back to their community," Sarsfield notes.

Most of these types of programs are offered at the graduate level, and the nurses who are enrolling in them are as diversified in their career paths as they are in their ethnic and cultural backgrounds.

Of the 33 students currently enrolled in the University of Texas at Arlington School of Nursing's PhD program, which focuses on preparing nurse scientists to meet the health needs of diverse and vulnerable populations, some are nurses who work in an administrative capacity at large health care organizations, says Jennifer Gray, PhD, RN, associate dean of the program. Others are nurses with years of clinical experience at the bedside or advanced practice nurses who want to move into a leadership or management role. Some are faculty members at other educational institutions. Some of the full-time students work as graduate research assistants.

Similarly, the 60 students enrolled in the University of Illinois at Chicago (UIC) College of Nursing's Adult/Geriatric Nurse Practitioner programs, which focus on caring for diverse patient populations, range from master's-entry students making a career change into nursing to RNs with a few years of experience, says Jean Berry, PhD, RN, CNP, director of the nearly three-year-old programs.

There are even some students coming directly from the undergraduate nursing program, Berry reports. However, they are encouraged to work part time to gain clinical experience, because that will help when they start their clinical courses.

Common Goals, Different Options

While these types of programs all share a common focus on improving the health of underserved populations, each one has its own unique twist. Some are research-oriented, others have a clinical focus and still others address the need for more nursing educators who are specialists in minority health issues.

The goal of Case Western Reserve's program is to prepare a cadre of nurse researchers committed to the elimination of health disparities. The nursing school received a grant from the National Institute of Nursing Research (NINR) to create the program, which was launched in Fall 2006.

"We're looking for nurses who understand that [these] patients come with multiple morbidities," says Moore. "They have diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular disease and arthritis. Studying only one of these conditions in isolation doesn't provide a good picture of how to manage the patient's health."

Students learn new study design methods and statistics based on complexity science that take into account that it's difficult to disentangle the factors associated with health disparities in vulnerable populations, she adds.

Moore is hoping to collaborate more closely with other academic departments, such as sociology and anthropology, as well as the Case School of Medicine's Center for Reducing Health Disparities and Center for Health Promotion. "Working with the different disciplines and centers will help our students get a bigger picture," she explains.

The new pre-/post-doctoral training program's minority health focus is also helping the school's entire nursing faculty expand its parameters. "It has galvanized us around understanding the complexity of health care issues [affecting] people who are economically disadvantaged, and what that means in terms of the impact on the mental, physical and psychosocial health of this population," says Moore. "The program is challenging us about the methods we're using, the knowledge we're producing and how we're moving into social policy and practice."

The University of Texas at Arlington's PhD program offers two areas of study: clinical research and academic role development. The clinical research track is designed to prepare nurse scientists for original research and theory development that will improve health care for diverse and/or vulnerable populations. The academic role development track focuses on developing nursing faculty who will create learning environments that attract students from culturally diverse backgrounds and prepare them to provide care to diverse populations.

Students in the Catholic University of America's community/ public health MSN program who are interested in working with underserved populations can choose from three different options. In addition to the Immigrant, Refugee and Global Health Clinical Nurse Specialist track, there is also a Promoting Healthy Families in Vulnerable Communities track and a Community/Public Health Nurse Specialist Educator track.

The Promoting Healthy Families program prepares students for the blended role of family nurse practitioner and community/public health CNS. The Nurse Specialist Educator program is designed to prepare community/public health nurses to teach in associate and baccalaureate degree programs, staff development programs and patient/family education programs. This track addresses the critical shortage of nursing faculty and strives to improve community-based care for vulnerable populations.

Serving the Global Community

Last July, CUA's School of Nursing was awarded a three-year, $778,077 HRSA grant to create the Immigrant, Refugee and Global Health CNS program, the newest of the three tracks. As the name implies, the program's goal is to prepare community and public health nurses to improve access to health care and reduce health disparities in medically underserved immigrant and refugee populations. The program also seeks to attract immigrant and international students as a means of diversifying the nursing workforce and giving immigrant and refugee patients access to caregivers who share a similar cultural and linguistic background.

Students gain exposure to theoretical content and clinical experiences that focus on health policy, global health issues, finance and information systems, and emergency preparedness.

"Nurses involved in immigrant and public health need to know about policy structures, such as Medicare, Medicaid and the State Children's Health Insurance Program," says Sister Rosemary Donley, PhD, APRN, BC, ANP, FAAN, project director for both the Immigrant, Refugee and Global Health CNS program and the Community/Public Health Nurse Specialist Educator program. "They also need to know about immigration issues and about diseases that are endemic to different parts of the world, such as tuberculosis and malaria."

Despite their differences in focus, the three tracks have one thing in common: Most of the students in the programs have a strong sense of social responsibility and many are mission focused. "We don't get a call from someone asking, 'How much money will I get when I graduate?'" says Sarsfield. "That's not usually the kind of students we attract."

Adds Donley, "They come here because they want to work with underserved populations with health disparities. When they graduate, most do just that." In fact, 62% of the programs' graduates work in underserved areas. Many work for public health departments and community clinics, and some have long-term goals of opening clinics in developing countries. CUA has agreements with several entities, such as the U.S. Congress and the World Bank, to provide students with health policy practicum opportunities.

Increasing Students' Access

Social responsibility is also at the core of the Fuld Fellowship program at Emory University's Nell Hodgson Woodruff School of Nursing in Atlanta. The program, made possible through a grant from the Helene Fuld Health Trust, targets career-changing students with degrees in fields other than nursing who are strongly committed to improving care for vulnerable popultions.

The full-tuition fellowship provides much-needed assistance for these students, who typically don't have as much access to financial aid resources as first-degree nursing students, says Ann Connor, MSN, RN-C, FNP, assistant professor of nursing. Since 2001, eight students have graduated from the program, and there are 14 Fuld Fellows currently enrolled.

Fuld Fellows attend core courses leading to a BSN degree, followed by a master's degree in specializations such as nurse-midwifery, public health and family nurse practitioner. They also participate in the school's social responsibility programs, such as the Farm Worker Family Health Program, Alternative Spring Break Trips to work with HIV/AIDS patients in Jamaica and the Bahamas, and the Korean Exchange Program.

These second-degree nursing students enrich the pool of nurses because of their diverse professional and educational backgrounds, says Connor. They have the advantage of maturity and a variety of life experiences and skills that allow them to assess issues from a different perspective than traditional nursing students. "They help change health care delivery models because they come with fresh ideas," she explains.

Some nursing schools are using distance learning to make their minority-health-focused programs more accessible to students. The Oregon Health & Science University (OHSU) School of Nursing in Portland has an online Master of Public Health (MPH) degree program focusing on primary health care and health disparities. It is offered in conjunction with the Oregon Master of Public Health (OMPH) program, a collaborative statewide degree program offered through OHSU, Oregon State University and Portland State University.

Launched in 2005, the Primary Health Care & Health Disparities MPH program emphasizes improvement in primary health care accessibility and quality for underserved populations. The curriculum evolved over a year of increasing collaboration between the MPH program and OHSU's Center for Health Disparities Research, explains associate professor of nursing Deborah Messecar, PhD, RN, MPH, CNS.

The program currently has approximately 40 students, roughly half of whom are nurses. The Center for Health Disparities Research has relationships with community-based agencies, creating opportunities for student field experiences. The program is also linked to the international initiatives of the OHSU School of Nursing's External Programs, giving students opportunities to work with vulnerable populations in Thailand and Ecuador.

Article by Ruth Carol is a Skokie, Ill.-based free-lance writer specializing in health care issues, and courtesy of MinorityNurse.com

Posted by Sarah Ennenga on December 31, 2007 at 12:33 PM | Leave a Comment (0)

Many recent graduates lament that their first professional jobs have no intellectual content, aren’t challenging, and require little more than an eighth-grade education. You would expect then that some of these graduates would question the value of a liberal arts education. In our experience that rarely happens.

But ask the same question of many members of the general public—including parents—and you’ll find a great deal of ambivalence about the value of a liberal arts education. The difference has to do with how liberal arts graduates and non-graduates perceive the purpose of such an education. While liberal arts graduates see value in the breadth and depth of their education, those without such an education—often eying more tangible results—see wasted time and energy. Indeed the most often cited reason for a college education, according to a recent survey of readers by the Chronicle of Higher Education, was the ability to get good jobs—the kind that pay well. Education, then, becomes part of a money-in, money-out equation, and a diploma is akin to a stock certificate that should produce dividends as quickly as possible.

The cost of higher education in the 21st century epitomizes the expression “sticker shock.” Attend a highly selective liberal arts college today, and you’re looking at a tuition bill that’s equal to a hefty down payment on a very nice house. And the cost is skyrocketing. According to the College Board, from 1995 to 2005, average tuition and fees, after being adjusted for inflation, grew by 36% in private four-year institutions and by a whopping 51% in public four-year institutions. Even in-state tuition at public universities may set you back close to $40,000. So, is a liberal arts education really a good [or worthwhile] investment?

It’s clear that for most people there’s an economic advantage to a college degree. As Katherine Haley Will, President of Gettysburg College, stated in a 2005 interview with National Public Radio “Tuition remains a significant investment, but there are few better investments. Twenty years ago, the average college graduate earned 1.5 times more than those who did not graduate; today the average college graduate earns almost twice as much as non-graduates.”

The economic advantage, however, may not be apparent at the beginning of a liberal arts graduate’s career. And if you believe the only acceptable investment result is a high salary, you may be disappointed. What your investment buys you is opportunity: opportunity for prosperity, and--something much more important--opportunity to follow your passion, wherever it may lead.

Article courtesy of Life After Graduation, LLC and excerpted from Smart Moves for Liberal Arts Grads: Finding a Path to Your Perfect Career, by Sheila J. Curran (Executive Director, Duke University Career Center – Sheila. smartmoves@gmail.com and Suzanne Greenwald; Ten Speed Press, May, 2006

Posted by Sarah Ennenga on December 31, 2007 at 10:13 AM | Leave a Comment (0)

The surgical nurse is the patient’s advocate during surgery. The nurse makes sure that the patient’s needs are met—even when the patient can’t communicate. It’s the job of the surgical nurse to make sure the patient comes through the surgery with as few complications as possible.

Chandler Walters was in critical condition when she was born—she wasn’t breathing and her body had the muscle tone of a rag doll. If it hadn’t been for the quick work of the operating room staff—including the attending surgical or perioperative nurse—Chandler might not have survived.

Fortunately, surgical nurses encounter life-and-death situations only occasionally. Theirs is a rewarding profession that you should investigate if you are considering a health career.

The surgical nurse plays two roles: First, he or she assists the surgeon and the surgical team in the surgical procedure itself. The exact role varies depending on the nature and extent of the surgery. Second, he or she spends time with the patient before surgery, knows the patient’s medical history thoroughly, and advises the surgical team of issues that could alter the way the procedure will be performed. The surgical nurse’s most important responsibility is to ensure that the patient’s medical needs are considered and that the patient comes through the surgery with as few complications as possible.

How does the surgical nurse accomplish all this? By having—and combining—people skills and clinical skills. For example, in the preoperative visit with the patient, it’s important for the nurse to probe the medical record, ask pertinent questions about the patient’s condition that the surgeon needs to know about, and answer the patient’s questions honestly. It’s also important to put the patient at ease—not always an easy task. The nurse also checks vital signs and reviews lab reports.

During surgery, the nurse focuses on the patient and supports the rest of the surgical team. It’s during surgery that the nurse’s ability to interpret the patient’s vital signs or previously spoken preferences is crucial. After surgery, the nurse monitors the patient’s condition as he or she comes out of anesthesia and begins the process of healing.

A good surgical nurse is caring, sympathetic, and intuitive. The operating room nurse must also be able to make quick decisions based on his or her knowledge and experience. The nurse must be able to communicate the patient’s needs to the surgeon and to the anesthesiologist, sometimes—as in the case of Chandler—within a few seconds of identifying the nature and seriousness of the patient’s distress.

Most surgical nurses work in conventional hospitals. However, that is likely to change as health care becomes more sophisticated and specialized—and as practice settings become more diverse. In the future, more and more surgical nurses will work in ambulatory “surgicenters,” clinics, and emergency medical centers.

To become a surgical nurse, students must complete a four-year Bachelor of Science in Nursing, or B.S.N., program, then pass their own state’s certification program. Registered nurses can continue their education in surgical procedures and sit for an examination to become a certified nurse for the operating room (CNOR).

Find out more at the website of AORN, the Association of Operating Room Nurses, www.aorn.org. Click on “Students” to learn just what surgical nurses do. Related organizations include the American Nurses Association, www.nursingworld.org; the American Association of Critical Care Nurses, www.aacn.org; the American Association of Nurse Anesthetists, www.aana.com; the Emergency Nurses Association, www.ena.org; and the Academy of Medical-Surgical Nurses, www.medsurgnurse.org.

Article by Paul Adams and courtesy of www.careersandcolleges.com

Posted by Sarah Ennenga on December 28, 2007 at 3:36 PM | Leave a Comment (0)

Overview

The PSAT (Preliminary Scholastic Assessment Test) and NMSQT (National Merit Scholarship Qualifying Test) are actually the same test. Often you will see this written as the PSAT/NMSQT, which is how we will refer to these on this page. Often the importance of the PSAT/NMSQT is underplayed, but becoming a National Merit Finalist is a great way to set yourself apart in the college admissions game. What people don't often tell you is that there are numerous scholarships available for National Merit Finalists and many schools even give National Merit Finalist students a 100% scholarship to cover tuition, room and board, and even a stipend -- this could be worth as much as $100,000 over the four years of college for which you have this scholarship. Do not take the PSAT/NMSQT lightly as it could turn into a $100,000 scholarship for you!

What is the PSAT or NMSQT?
The PSAT/NMSQT is a standardized test administered by high schools across the country, and any sophomore (10th grader) or junior (11th grader) who would like to take the test can do so in the fall of the school year. The PSAT/NMSQT serves two purposes:

• The PSAT/NMSQT is practice for the real SAT, which most students will need to take in order to apply for college. This practice for the SAT is useful for both sophomores and juniors.


• The PSAT/NMSQT is used as the basis for qualification in the prestigious National Merit Scholarship Program in a student's junior year. Students who take the PSAT/NMSQT during their sophomore year will not be eligible for the National Merit Scholarship Program.

What is the National Merit Scholarship Program all about? How do I qualify?

The National Merit Scholarship Program is an academic program to recognize the highest scoring and most academically strong high school juniors in the United States. To participate in the National Merit Scholarship Program a student must be enrolled as a full time high school student, be a permanent resident or citizen of the United States, and take the PSAT/NMSQT no later than the third year of high school. Though sophomores are not eligible, it is great practice for the SAT.

Of the approximately 1.5 million juniors who will take the PSAT/NMSQT and are eligible for the National Merit Scholarship Program, about 50,000 students with the high PSAT/NMSQT selection index (critical reading + math + writing score) will be selected for recognition. There are two types of recognition in this first round: National Merit Commended and National Merit Semifinalist. The necessary selection index for semifinalist status varies from state to state, as students are measured against only students in their state. Often this means that highly competitive states such as Massachusetts and California will have much higher selection indices than other states. The selection index for Commended status is set nationally.

In the April after the PSAT/NMSQT, the 50,000 highest scoring students in the country will be notified that they may qualify for an award. At this point, each notified student will be asked to name two colleges or universities to which they would like to be referred by the NMSC. If you are asked to do this, be very careful in this selection. In order to qualify for funding from a university you must often list that university as your first choice on this list of two schools. Be careful to make sure that you list your safety school here to ensure that you get a scholarship from that school! Often this means the nearest major university or state school. The following September (approximately one year after taking the PSAT/NMSQT in junior year) these high scorers will be notified through their school if they have qualified as either a National Merit Commended student or National Merit Semifinalist.

More than two-thirds or approximately 34,000 students of the 50,000 that were notified in April will receive Letters of Commendation for their outstanding academic performance on the PSAT/NMSQT. The Selection Index necessary to be commended varies from year to year, but is set nationally. Usually somewhere in the neighborhood of 205 or so is sufficient to be named a National Merit Commended Student. Commended Students do not continue on in the National Merit Scholarship Competition, but some of these students do become candidates for special scholarships granted by other corporations and businesses.

The remaining one-third of students who were notified in April, but are not Commended, become National Merit Semifinalists. The Selection Index to become a Semifinalist varies from state to state anywhere from a 210 to over 225 in some states. The National Merit Scholarship Corporation will provide scholarship application materials to Semifinalists through their high schools. Of these 16,000 Semifinalists, 15,000 will be notified that they are Finalists to receive a scholarship from the National Merit Scholarship Corporation. This is a very prestigious honor and will in many cases result in some sort of academic scholarship.

For more information about the criteria for receiving a scholarship and additional information, consult the National Merit Scholarship Website.

PSAT/NMSQT Structure

The PSAT/NMSQT tests the same general areas as the SAT:

• critical reading skills


• math problem-solving skills


• writing skills

Critical Reading

• 2 sections, 25 minutes each


• 48 questions, all multiple choice
  
  • 13 Sentence completions
  
  
  • 35 Critical reading questions

Math

• 2 sections, 25 minutes each


• 38 questions, 28 multiple choice and 10 student produced response or grid-in answers


• A calculator is allowed (four function calculators, scientific calculators, and graphing calculators other than the TI-92 are acceptable)


• The PSAT/NMSQT math section will test:
  
  • Numbers and Operation
  
  
  • Algebra and Functions (but not 3rd year level math that may appear on the new SAT)
  
  
  • Geometry and Measurement
  
  
  • Data Analysis, Statistics and Probability

Writing

• 1 section, 30 minutes


• 39 questions, all multiple choice
  
  • 14 Identifying sentence errors
  
  
  • 20 Improving sentences
  
  
  • 5 Improving paragraph questions

The multiple-choice questions on the PSAT/NMSQT writing section measure your ability to express ideas effectively and clearly in English. This includes understanding finding grammatical errors, structural faults, and how to use language appropriately to express meaning and intention clearly.

Scoring

Score reports will be delivered to your high school in December (or to your home address if you are a home schooled student). Since PSAT/NMSQT score reports are not available via phone or the internet, you will have to wait till your school decides to distribute score reports.

To understand how the PSAT/NMSQT is scored, you must first understand how individual questions are scored. For each correct answer you will get 1 point, for each unanswered question you will receive 0 points, for each incorrect answer to a grid-in question you will receive 0 points, and for each incorrect answer to a multiple choice answer you will lose 1/4 of a point. The reason for this is that each question on the PSAT/NMSQT has 5 possible answers. If a student guesses randomly they have a 1 in 5 chance of guessing the correct answer. This means that if a student guesses randomly, for every 5 questions they will randomly guess 1 of these correct and will have guessed incorrectly on 4 of the 5. Thus their score will be +1 for the correct answer and 4*- 0.25 for the four incorrect answers, and thus the total score for this student will be +1 - (4*0.25) = 0, thus the student does not receive any points for just randomly guessing.

For each of the Math, Reading, and Writing sections the individual question answers are totaled to produce a raw score for each section. This raw score is then compared to all other students who took that same test and converted to a "scaled score" from 20 to 80. Think of this as grading on a curve.

Scaling is done to make sure that the same percentage of people on each test receive the same score to maintain consistency between PSAT/NMSQT tests. This process of taking a raw score and computing the equivalent scaled score based on all students' performance on that test is what makes the PSAT/NMSQT a standardized test.

For example, on one test date the test may be relatively easy so many students receiving a raw score of 20 (say 22 correct answers, 8 incorrect, and 9 blank) on the Writing section may be enough for a PSAT score of 45 in Writing, but on another test date the test may have been much more difficult and therefore the average student would have missed more questions. This means your raw score could be lower (say 18) but your scaled score would be the same, a 20.

In addition to a scaled score, each student receives a percentile rank. This percentile score is a comparison of your score to other students who took the test and represents the percent of students who scored the same or lower than you. Thus if your percentile rank is 75th percentile, this means 75 percent of students taking the PSAT/NMSQT scored no higher than you did. Scaled scores map to percentiles consistently from year to year, thus a 50 in one year is the same percentile as a 50 in another year.

The PSAT Selection Index is just the sum of the three sections, for a maximum possible score of 240. The national average is approximately a 49 on each section, for an average selection index of 147.

On Test Day You should make sure to bring:

• At least two number two pencils


• An approved calculator. Any four function, scientific, or graphing calculator other than the TI-92 should be fine but you should confirm when you receive your registration materials (in which you will be sent a list of approved calculators).


• A picture ID - if you have a driver's license this will be fine, if not bring your school ID. Remember to make sure that the ID has your picture on it


• A bottle of water and finger foods such as a bag of grapes to snack on during breaks between sections - water is the only thing you can drink during the test

Looking to improve your test scores even more? Check out PrepMe.com!

This article is provided by PrepMe, a premium online ACT and SAT prep company.

Article courtesy of www.careersandcolleges.com

Posted by Sarah Ennenga on December 28, 2007 at 11:09 AM | Leave a Comment (0)

Overview

The ACT is a national (and international) college admission standardized test taken by over 1 million students worldwide. Started in 1959, the ACT was established as a way to impartially assess a student's potential for success in college, help students gauge their abilities in the core subjects taught in high school, and to assist colleges in admission by providing a standardized measurement of a student's ability from different schools across the world.

Individuals of all educational backgrounds and ages can take the ACT, including middle school students, high school graduates, and adults looking to go back to college. All that is required is registering for the test and paying the testing fee, which can be waived in certain circumstances. You can take the ACT more than once and can elect which scores are sent to colleges for review. This is different from other standardized tests where ALL of your scores will be sent to the colleges where you apply for admission.

The Test

The ACT has four mandatory subject tests, English, Reading, Mathematics, and Science, and one optional 30 minute Writing test. The test has 215 questions in total and takes three and a half hours to complete, or about four hours if you take the optional writing section. The test is administered six times a year -- in September (only in certain regions), October, December, February, April, and June.

Why does the ACT matter? Why is the ACT important?

The ACT is a standardized test to get into colleges. Most universities will accept either the ACT or the SAT, but the ACT is a nice alternative to the SAT for some students because it is curriculum based. This means it tests a set of content that you can very directly study for, and if you put in the time your score will go up. The import of the ACT can vary from student to student, however.

For some students, taking both the SAT and ACT is a great option because they can submit whichever of the two scores is better (based on their percentile ranking) which then lets them increase their odds of acceptance in college admissions. For other students, the ACT is important because it lets them qualify for particular scholarships or programs. For example, certain camps or universities with special programs for middle school students will accept a certain score on the ACT for admission into their summer program. In other cases, some universities will have special scholarships established that require a minimum ACT score to qualify, hence taking the ACT qualifies students for these opportunities.

Taking both the ACT and SAT is highly recommended as most students have nothing to lose and much to gain.

Scoring

Each subject test is graded individually, and based on the total number of correct answers a student has for that section. There is no "penalty" for incorrect guesses -- you do not lose a fraction of a point for each incorrect answer, so guessing is highly encouraged as it cannot hurt your score. The total number of a student's correct answers (a student's "raw score") gets compared to all other students who took that same test and converted to a "scaled score" from 1 to 36. We commonly think of this as grading on a curve.

Scaling is done to make sure that the same percentage of people on each test receive the same score to maintain consistency between ACT tests. This process of taking a raw score and computing the equivalant scaled score based on all students' performance on that test is what makes the ACT a standardized test.

For example, on one test date the test may be relatively easy so receiving 50 correct answers on the English section may be enough for an ACT score of 30 in English, but on another test date the test may have been much more difficult and therefore the average student would have missed more questions. This means your raw score could be lower (say 48) but your scaled score would be the same, a 30.

The ACT composite score is just an average of the scores for each of the four sections.

The ACT writing test is optional. If you take the ACT writing test, your essay will be scored by two readers, each giving your essay a score from 1 to 6. Your writing score will be the sum of these two scores. This score (from 2 to 12) and will appear as a sub-score of the English Subject Test. The combined English/Writing score ranges from 1 to 36, giving a weight of 2/3 to the English test score and a weight of 1/3 to the writing sub-score. Your report will also have comments from the two readers to give you feedback on the strengths and weaknesses of your essay.

In addition to a scaled score, each student receives a percentile rank. This percentile score is a comparison of your score to other students who took the test and represents the percent of students who scored the same or lower than you. Thus if your percentile rank is 75th percentile, this means 75 percent of students taking the ACT scored no higher than you did. Scaled scores map to percentiles consistently from year to year, thus a 25 in one year is the same percentile as a 25 in another year.

On Test Day You should make sure to bring:

• At least two number two pencils


• An approved calculator. Any four function, scientific, or graphing calculator other than the TI-92 should be fine but you should confirm when you receive your registration materials (in which you will be sent a list of approved calculators).


• A picture ID - if you have a driver's license this will be fine, if not bring your school ID. Remember to make sure that the ID has your picture on it


• A bottle of water and finger foods such as a bag of grapes to snack on during breaks between sections

Looking to improve your test scores even more? Check out PrepMe.com!

This article is provided by PrepMe, a premium online ACT and SAT prep company.

Article courtesy of www.careersandcolleges.com

Posted by Sarah Ennenga on December 27, 2007 at 10:28 AM | Leave a Comment (0)

We now live in a world where any kind of information imaginable is at our fingertips. For those looking to better their careers, earning an online degree, or certificate, offers the convenience of an accredited educational experience that would have been unavailable to them in the past.

While there are many courses of study available online, a few really stand out as popular choices for people seeking career advancement and personal fulfillment.

Accounting Degree – Accounting degrees are widely sought these days. Corporations especially need good accountants to avoid Enron type scandals.

MBA Degree – The prestige and pure earning power of an MBA degree will never go out of style.

Psychology Degree – Despite Tom Cruise’s dislike for psychology, there are plenty of people who wish to study and practice psychology. Online study is particularly convenient to earn advanced psychology degrees.

Nursing Degree – With millions of Baby Boomers hitting their golden years, nurses will continue to be sorely needed to fill all kinds of health care vacancies.

Health Administration Degree – Health Administration is another growing field. Management professionals are needed in hospitals, clinics, and health related agencies to work in our often challenging health care environment.

Paralegal Degree – Paralegals or Legal Assistants are always in demand by corporations and law firms. While Paralegals don’t practice law, they are the backbone of any law office or legal department.

Biblical Studies/Seminary Degree – While others take care of the body, some are called to tend to the soul. An accredited degree in religious studies is highly valued amongst faith based communities and congregations.

Graphic Design Degree – For people who love to draw and paint for fun, a Graphic Design degree is the perfect career move. Graphic design can mean designing simple ad layouts to creating sophisticated multimedia presentations.

Don’t sweat it if your career choice isn’t on this list. Most likely, you’ll still be able to take courses online to meet your desired career goals. There is a large variety of choice when it comes to online courses. Take a few moments to investigate the possibilities for professional career advancement now available to you. You really can study from the cozy comfort of your living room. How nice.

Article by Donna Monday, Earn a degree online in your own home and courtesy of Article-Wiz Article Directory.

Posted by Sarah Ennenga on December 26, 2007 at 5:44 PM | Leave a Comment (0)

Recommendations are Important
If your guidance counselor tells you that no part of your college application is more important than any other, he or she is both right and wrong. So what exactly does this mean? It means that college admissions are more competitive today than they have ever been before. This means that colleges need to look closely at each segment of a student's application to differentiate between students. At the same time, this means forgetting to pay close attention to one segment can be detrimental to your chances of being accepted. It also means that your letter of recommendation has nearly the same weight as your GPA, as your SAT score, your extracurricular activities, and your personal essay (to a certain extent).

Teachers are My Friends
Assuming you have a good relationship with your teachers, you have your foot in the door to a great letter of recommendation. Traditionally, schools would like you to have two recommendations: one from the Math/Science department and one from the English/History (social science/humanities) department. If you are applying to specialized schools, then you may consider obtaining recommendations from sports coaches, music teachers, or past employers. Just make sure that you use those two recommendations to their full capacity; they should highlight different aspects of you as a student and person. That being said, they should both paint a positive picture of you and they should definitely not contradict each other.

I Need Some Teachers to be My Friends
If you feel that you are not close enough to any of your teachers to really inspire a great recommendation letter, do not fear because there is still time as long as you are willing to make an effort. Start by talking a lot more to your teachers. Go to them after class with questions and build a casual relationship by asking them how their day is going. Once you have gotten past this first barrier and can say "Hi" to them in the hallways, you are ready for the second step. There is surely more to you as a person than your name and the grades that that teacher gives you. You need to convey this to your teacher as well. Set up a meeting time with your teacher to chat. In most cases, teachers are delighted to get to know their students. You can use these conversations to get to know if your teacher would be the best person to write you a recommendation (Do they respond to your questions with interest? Do they like you?) and also to let your teacher know what kind of a person you are (What kind of college do you want to attend? What are your career goals? What are your personal goals?).

Once you have chosen the teachers that you feel the best fit with, ask them politely if they will write you a letter of recommendation for college. Obviously, because of your charm and hard work, they will agree to do so with pleasure. By now, you should have a list of your extracurricular activities that you should give to the teacher. Also, it is best to give them a short list of some qualities, projects, or work that you would like them to highlight. If you have an educational resume, use it instead.

Check the Box: Waive Your Rights to the Recommendation
MAKE SURE you check the box allowing the teacher's recommendation to be confidential. Many teachers feel uncomfortable writing recommendations for students who want access to them in the future. Teachers want to tell the truth about you and if you just ask them beforehand whether or not they feel comfortable writing you a positive recommendation, they will tell you. Teachers who do not feel comfortable writing a strong recommendation will let you know and you can ask other teachers. So stop worrying! From there on, it's smooth sailing! Make sure you thank them afterwards and write them a thank you card. If you want to be classy, avoid the Hallmark and supermarket aisle thank you cards and use a set of blank thank you cards.

This article is provided by PrepMe, a premium online ACT and SAT prep company.

Article by Suzanne Xie and courtesy of www.careersandcolleges.com

Posted by Sarah Ennenga on December 20, 2007 at 6:10 PM | Leave a Comment (0)

Should you take AP tests in high school?

Well, are those AP tests worth it? You can check out the charts below and see how the top colleges in the nation consider AP credits. But before you get too excited about passing out of your freshman year in college, remember this: sometimes colleges grant 'General Elective' credit for AP scores. This 'General Elective' credit is useful if you want to graduate early because it means you have to take fewer electives at the college. However, if you are looking to test out of a course in an area that you are majoring in, some colleges will only give you placement into an upper level course within your concentration. As for IB scores, most colleges consider a 6 or a 7 to be equal to a 4 or a 5 on the AP exam, but few colleges actually list the credit given for IB classes. You are highly encouraged to call or email the admissions office to see exactly what kind of credit is offered for each of the AP examinations.

Some colleges offer their own tests to see whether or not students have the knowledge necessary to test out of their courses. These placement examinations are also often used to see whether or not students are qualified to test into advanced level courses. So even if you don't do as well as you'd hoped on the AP test, at some colleges, you can redeem yourself by testing well on their placement exams. Some colleges only accept or give credit or placement based on your performance on these exams. We highly recommend calling the admissions office at the college you are considering to get the exact details of the college-administered exams.

You are encouraged to look at the links to the college websites for more details, especially if you are considering applying to (or have already applied to) the college. There may be other stipulations for credit to be awarded.

NOTE: For colleges which do not advertise their AP policies, or who give AP credit selectively based on request, specifically CalTech, Harvard, and UPenn, we recommend calling the admissions office and the office of the division that you are considering for information.

Looking to improve your test scores even more? Check out PrepMe.com!

This article is brought to you by PrepMe.com

Article by Ben Hiebert and courtesy of PrepMe, a premium online ACT and SAT prep company.

Posted by Sarah Ennenga on December 20, 2007 at 3:00 PM | Leave a Comment (0)

Tips on Making a Big Decision

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My friend RR has a list of grad schools she wants to apply to. At least I hope she does. She asked me to help her narrow down that list. She asked me to tell her where to apply. Not knowing where you want to apply or knowing that you want to apply to twenty schools is an immensely frustrating situation.

Posted by CandiceArnold on December 10, 2007 at 3:01 PM | Leave a Comment (0)

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Now that you are putting on that cap and gown and ending the final chapter of your high school days, you find yourself on the footpath to a new world of career preparation, college education, and that ever daunting question is not far away: what college major should I choose?

Posted by CandiceArnold on December 7, 2007 at 2:51 PM | Leave a Comment (0)

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College is expensive, as we all know. It's a major decision which school for your child to attend. Even more major for most of us, is figuring out how to pay for it! There is always the hope of a college scholarship; I have compiled a list of college scholarships for North Carolina students.

SECU Foundation

They offer a "People Helping People Scholarship.

Posted by CandiceArnold on December 7, 2007 at 2:47 PM | Leave a Comment (0)

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Boston, MA is a city that is home to many colleges. There are the major institutions like Harvard, MIT, Boston University, Northeastern and Boston College. But then there are a host of smaller schools many of which, because of their size, tend to specialize in one or two areas of study.

Posted by CandiceArnold on December 7, 2007 at 2:39 PM | Leave a Comment (0)

In the wake of the shootings at Virginia Tech last April, when 23-year-old English major Seung-Hui Cho shot and killed 32 students and professors and wounded 25 others, college and university administrators across the country have been debating the best ways to respond to the issues the attack has raised, especially the question of security.

"Almost every college has used the Virginia Tech shootings as an example of what could happen on a campus and as an impetus for reviewing their policies [over the] summer," says University of San Francisco (USF) director of public safety Dan Lawson.

Growing Fears

The Virginia Tech shootings have undermined the sense that many campus communities - including students, faculty, administrators, and parents - have long enjoyed. It's the idea that "it can't happen here," or that the worst of campus crimes are generally confined to high-crime, urban settings.

But Virginia Tech, on 2,600 acres surrounded by rolling hills and farmlands, put the lie to that sense of security. "We were attacked by a madman intent on violence," says Larry Hincker, Virginia Tech's associate vice president of university relations. "It could have happened on any university campus in America."

Balancing Safety with Freedom
In order to address students' fears, school administrators have been dealing with many questions: How can we make campuses safer for students and faculty? What are the limitations of providing security to large, sprawling universities? How can we ratchet up security without compromising one of the most important and traditional aspects of college life - an open, academic atmosphere?

For Shannon, a 26-year-old master's student, the free flow between the University of San Francisco campus and the surrounding city is one of the things she likes best about her college experience. "I like the openness here," she says. "I wouldn't like it to feel any different. There has to be a freeness to a campus."

Other professors and students share her feelings: "A locked-down environment would mean walking around campus confronted with fear as the ruling passion," says Sharon Krause, associate professor of political science at Brown University in Providence, Rhode Island. "That can't be good for any community - especially an intellectual community."

Dr. Melody Seymour, a professor of English at Napa Valley College in California, knows firsthand about the threat of campus violence. As a young teacher in East Texas, Seymour was once confronted by a student who threatened to go home, get his gun, and shoot her and the rest of her students.

Fortunately, she was able to talk him down, but the experience almost 40 years ago left a dark impression: "Since then, it has never surprised me when I hear about violence in the classroom. People bring their burdens with them onto campus and sometimes, if they act out, it can be dangerous."

Yet, while security is a top priority for Seymour, so is the free flow of people and the free exchange of ideas. "I'm not sure you could teach in a campus that wasn't open access," she muses. "Would you really wish to have an academic institution with closed doors?"

Weighing the Options
Many campus security experts agree that a locked-down environment in a college or university setting, the kind you might find at a federal building, for example - with fencing, metal detectors in every doorway, or security personnel in every hallway - just wouldn't work.

"You have to understand that college campuses are like cities, with tens of thousands of people attending and people arriving any time of the day or night," says Renee Jadushlever, vice president for operations at Mills College in Oakland, California, which is situated on 135 acres. "Trying to batten down a sprawling university campus would be like trying to lock down a small city."

Improving Campus Security
Hoping to meet the dual demands of keeping students, professors, and campus personnel secure, yet reasonably unrestricted, many administrators like Jadushlever have opted for a range of effective, but less drastic, security measures. While better locks and brighter lights will play a role on many campuses this fall, administrators are also focusing their efforts on adopting more sophisticated, campus-wide communications systems.

Virginia Tech and Mills, for example, are installing Web-based emergency notification systems that will allow college administrators to send out simultaneous alerts to all campus community members who sign up for the service.

The system can send out an alert 24-7 via half a dozen methods, including text messaging, instant messaging, cell phones, home phones, or work phones. The Mills system can even document whether the recipient of the alert actually listened to the entire message, allowing administrators to pinpoint individuals who may not have received an important warning.

Mills is also installing panic buttons around more isolated parts of their campuses as well as access controls in residence halls that require a student ID card to enter. "Our campus community is like a family," says Jadush-lever, "and the people who are charged with providing safety take the responsibility as seriously as if each community member were a family member."

Other campuses are also educating their faculty about how to respond to an emergency. At USF, for example, Lawson is overseeing efforts to teach faculty how to prepare for and react to any emergency, including earthquakes, fires, bombs, acts of terrorism, or shootings.

"The more we get faculty involved, the better, because faculty members have direct contact with students," says Lawson, a retired captain of the San Francisco Police Department with 38 years in law enforcement. "If they feel personally prepared, they’ll be more of a resource than even security personnel or police. In an emergency, faculty will be at ground zero to lock up doors, close windows, or evacuate a classroom."

Meanwhile, some legislators are considering allowing guns on campus. In South Carolina, for example, proponents of gun rights submitted a bill that would have allowed permit holders to have a gun on any public school college campus. They argued that students or faculty might have shot Cho and stopped his rampage if not for Virginia Tech's gun-free "safe zone" policy.

But gun control advocates countered that allowing guns could invite rather than prevent violence. More controls are needed, they argued, given Cho's easy access to handguns despite his history of mental illness. Eventually, the bill was changed to require that weapons be left in cars.

The Prevalence of Peaceful Learning
In the midst of these questions and debates, it's important to remember that statistically, campuses remain safe environments.

"We need to keep everything in perspective," Lawson says. "The Virginia Tech massacre was a tragic event and I don't mean to diminish it in any way, but the fact is that violence on campuses across the country is still relatively rare. A student has a better chance of being struck by lightening than being killed on a campus like this."

In fact, the 32 homicides at Virginia Tech, the deadliest shooting spree in modern U.S. history, was a statistical anomaly. It far surpassed the average annual of 17 murders and manslaughters on 6,000 American campuses between 2001 and 2003, according to the U.S. Department of Education.

A Personal Balance
Perhaps the best response students, faculty, and campus personnel can make to the threat of on-campus violence is to find their own personal balance between the need to be safe and the desire to go on with their lives as usual.

For Krause, it's important to remember that most days on university campuses consist of "peaceful learning." "We can't let fear stand in the way of all that an open campus environment has to offer in terms of intellectual growth and contributing to the advancement of knowledge. That legacy is one way the human spirit can sustain in spite of these terrible instances of human destructiveness."

For Virginia Tech student Elliott Tibor, finding that balance has been a bigger challenge than for many others. Last spring, Tibor learned that his former teacher and mentor was shot and killed by Cho (see "Taking Back the Campus"). Recently, he reflected on how it will feel for him and for his friends to be back at Virginia Tech this fall. While he may be more cautious than he used to be, Tibor said, he doesn't plan to allow fear to rule his life.

"I think we'll all be a little more aware of our surroundings now, and maybe when I get back to campus I'll subconsciously be looking around for antisocial people, but I don't think it will be a prominent thing for me. I don't feel scared or intimidated. Mainly, I just want to get back and be part of the recovery."

Article by Susan Marquez Owen, a freelance journalist in northern California and courtesy of www.careersandcolleges.com

Posted by Sarah Ennenga on December 7, 2007 at 1:57 PM | Leave a Comment (0)

When the Weather is Your Future

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Yes there really are lots of careers for graduates with a degree in meteorology. While meteorology may not be the most popular major on campus, this field of study still sends graduates with a degree in meteorology into a number of exciting careers each year. In fact in the United States today there are estimated to be more than 30,000 career positions being filled by graduates with a degree in meteorology. What makes the job search for graduates with a degree in meteorology comparatively easy is that many careers for graduates with a degree in meteorology are concentrated among a relatively small number of employers.

Television Meteorologist Perhaps the best known and most visible career for a graduate with a degree in meteorology is that of a television meteorologist. We all have occasions when we need or want to tune in to our local television station to get the latest update of the weather in our area. When we do we can't help but encounter the graduate with a degree in meteorology who is employed by the local station to keep area folk well informed.

Posted by CandiceArnold on December 6, 2007 at 5:01 PM | Leave a Comment (0)

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This is a continuation of my 'What to Expect Academically as a First Year Electrical Engineering Student at Umass Amherst' Article.

Posted by CandiceArnold on December 6, 2007 at 4:44 PM | Leave a Comment (0)

How American Can You Be

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American was one of my daughter's top three choices for her college education. She got accepted and there was indication that a scholarship might be arranged. That was enough to get us on the road to drive the 500 miles from New England to D.C.

Posted by CandiceArnold on December 5, 2007 at 5:43 PM | Leave a Comment (0)

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If you are new to UNC Charlotte campus and do not know much about the area as well as want to meet new people and enjoy community service, then try UNC Charlotte on-campus volunteering center.

There is one way to join the community service scene at UNC Charlotte.

Posted by CandiceArnold on December 5, 2007 at 4:37 PM | Leave a Comment (0)

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Are you a newly graduated or soon-to-be graduated high school student ? Do you feel that you are not quite ready to enter college? Are you a stay-at-home mother wanting to start a new career or a person that wants to change career types?

Posted by CandiceArnold on December 5, 2007 at 4:07 PM | Leave a Comment (0)

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Whether you are going to college for the first time, or going back to college, here are 10 items that you will certainly want to bring with you.

A college student cannot do without a computer: There was a time when a computer was a luxury.

Posted by CandiceArnold on December 4, 2007 at 5:29 PM | Leave a Comment (0)

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About CSU

University or College Location: Fort Collins, Colorado

Little Known Facts: There's approximately 1,403 faculty members, 55 academic departments, 21,884 undergraduates, and 4,534 postgraduates.

Posted by CandiceArnold on December 4, 2007 at 5:24 PM | Leave a Comment (0)

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From the time I could use a computer, one of my biggest dreams was to write professionally. I'm no poet. I've tried repeatedly to be a screenwriter. And, I've practiced until my fingers were raw to do what I'm doing now.

Posted by CandiceArnold on December 4, 2007 at 5:17 PM | Leave a Comment (0)

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Each region of the northeastern state of Maine offers a variety of colleges and universities. These include a number of two-year community colleges, several universities which offer both two and four year degrees, specialized colleges, and various other types.

Posted by CandiceArnold on December 4, 2007 at 5:05 PM | Leave a Comment (0)